Today, traits contributing
to unity in Arab music are numerous. These traits may not be universally
applicable, however, and their orientation and detailed features may differ
from one community to another. Furthermore, because of common historical
backgrounds and geographical and cultural proximity, many non-Arabs -
particularly Turks and Persians - share many of these traits, a fact that
enables scholars to study the Near East as one broad musical area.
One aspect
of unity in Arab music is the intimate connection between the music and
the Arabic language. This is demonstrated by the emphasis placed upon
the vocal idiom and by the often central role played by the poet-singer.
Examples are the sha'ir, literally "poet," in Upper Egypt and among the
Syrian-Desert Bedouins, and the qawwal, literally "one who says," in the
Lebanese tradition of zajal, or sung folk-poetry. This link is also exemplified
in the common practice of setting to music various literary forms, including
the qasidah and the muwashshah.
Maqâm
Another
salient trait is the principal position of Arab melody
in Arab music and the absence of complex polyphony, a phenomenon distinguishing
music of this part of the world, and a good portion of Asia, from the
music of Europe and certain areas in Sub-Saharan Africa. Instead, Arab
music exhibits refinement and complexity in the melody marked by subtle
and intricate ornaments and nuances. Melody in Arab music also incorporates
microtonality, namely intervals that do not conform to the half-step and
whole-step divisions of traditional Western art music.
The concept
of melody is commonly connected with modality, a conceptual organizational
framework widely known under the name maqâm; plural, maqâmât).
Each of the maqâmât is based on a theoretical scale, specific notes
of emphasis, and a typical pattern of melodic movement, in many instances
beginning around the tonic note of the scale, gradually ascending, and
finally descending to the tonic. Although it is the basis for various
musical compositions, the maqâm scheme may be best illustrated
through such nonmetric improvisatory genres as the instrumental solo known
in Egypt and the Levant as taqâsîm, vocal forms such
as the layali and the mawwal, and religious genres such as Qur'anic chanting
and the Sufi Qasidah.
In Egypt and
the Levant, theorists divide the octave scale into small microtones comparable
to those discussed earlier by al-Farabi and Safi ad-Din. Several types
of micro-intervals have been advocated, including the comma division (roughly
one-ninth of a whole step), which is found in some Syrian theories. Yet,
it is generally conceived that the Maqamat are based on a referential
octave scale consisting of twenty-four equal quarter-tones. Despite the
essentially aural nature of Arab music, Western notation has become fully
established, and extra symbols are widely used. In addition to the regular
flat and sharp signs, the symbol lowers a note by approximately a quarter
tone while the symbol raises a note by roughly a quarter tone.
Following is a list of the scales of maqâmât most often used in Egypt and the Levant:
Iqa'
The modal conception and organization of melody is paralleled by
a modal treatment of Arab rhythm. In Arab music, metric
modes are employed in various metric compositions and are widely known
by the name iqa'at (singular iqa'). Influencing the nature of phrasing
and the patterns of accentuation of a musical composition, these modes
are rendered on percussion instruments within the ensemble, including
the tablah (a vase-shaped hand-drum) and the riqq (a small tambourine).
Each iqa' has a specific name and a pattern of beats ranging in number
from two to twenty-four or more.
As presented in contemporary music theory, an iqa' consists primarily
of rests and beats distinguished by timbre. In the Egyptian tradition,
the dumm (represented by a note with a downward stem) indicates a deep
sound produced by hitting closer to the central position of the drum or
tambourine head. The takk (represented by a note with an upward stem)
is a high pitched crisp sound produced by beating or tapping near the
rim of the instrument. Although the theoretical representation of a metric
mode is essentially simple, the interpretation can be highly complex and
varied. While maintaining the essential features of organization and emphasis
within the pattern, percussion players usually improvise further rhythmic
subdivisions and create numerous variants using a vast vocabulary of timbral
effects.
Following is a list of the beat patterns of iqa'at most commonly heard
in the contemporary music of Egypt and the Levant:
In Arab music, and in Near Eastern music in general, compound forms predominate. Such forms are based on the assembling together of instrumental and vocal pieces that share the same melodic mode. Within a compound form, the individual pieces may vary in style, improvised or precomposed, featuring a solo singer or chorus, metric or nonmetric. A compound form is usually known by its local generic name and by the name of the melodic mode it belongs to. Examples include an established Iraqi repertoire typical of the cities and known generically by the name maqâm. Other examples are the Syrian fasil and the North African Nawbah.
An eleventh-century ivory casket from Cordoba.
In Egypt, the late
nineteenth early twentieth-century waslah, customarily incorporated a
precomposed ensemble prelude, either a dulab or the more elaborate sama'i;
a number of solo instrumental improvisations; a muwashshah sung by a small
chorus; and vocal improvisations, namely the layali, which is a vocalization
using the syllables ya layl, and the mawwal, which uses a poetical text
in colloquial Arabic. The Egyptian waslah culminated in the dawr, which
although basically precomposed allowed considerable freedom of interpretation
by the mutrib, or main male vocalist, especially in passages based on
call and response between him and the accompanying chorus.
Another feature
of musical unity in the contemporary Arab world lies in the area of musical
instruments. Instruments such as the qanun, 'ud, nay and the Western violin
are found in most urban Arab orchestras. Furthermore, certain types of
instruments are frequently associated with specific social functions.
Bowed instruments often accompany the solo voice. In this case, the singer
and the accompanist are typically the same person. The Bedouin sha'ir
uses the rababah to accompany the love song genre known as the 'ataba
and the heroic poems known as shruqi or qasid. Similarly, the Egyptian
sha'ir uses the rababah to accompany his recitation of the medieval Arab
epic known after its hero, Abu Zayd al-Hilali. In folk life, wind instruments
are generally played outdoors; for example, the mizmar of Egypt and the
tabl baladi (a large double-sided drum) are used at weddings and similarly
festive events, mostly for the accompaniment of dance. At Lebanese, Syrian,
and Palestinian weddings, the mijwiz is an adjunct to the dabkah or line
dance.
Aspects of
unity are also found in the traditional musical content of Arab social
and religious life. Since Islam is the prevalent religion of the Arab
world, Qur'anic chanting is the quintessential religious expression, transcending
ethnic and national boundaries. This form is nonmetric, solo-performed,
and based upon the established rules of tajwid, the Islamic principles
of recitation. Of comparable prevalence is the adhan, or Islamic call
to prayer, which is heard from the minaret at the times of prayer throughout
the Arab and Muslim world. Sufi performances of music and dance have been
held in private and in public for centuries throughout North Africa and
the Levant. Exhibiting considerable unity in song genres and in style
of performance, Sufi music has been influenced by, and in turn influenced,
the various secular vocal traditions. Finally,
a more recent contributor to musical unity has been the modern electronic
media. The rise of wide-scale commercial recording around 1904, the appearance
of the musical film in Egypt in 1932, and the establishment of public
radio stations in later years promoted the creation of a large pan-Arab
audience. Today the word ughniyyah generally refers to a prevalent song
category featuring a solo singer and an elaborate orchestra equipped with
both Western and traditional Arab instruments. Presented by such celebrities
as Egypt's Muhammad 'Abd al-Wahhab and the late female singer Um Kulthum,
these songs are now enjoyed by a huge audience extending from Morocco
to Iraq.
Despite such
unity, the Arab world is also a land of musical contrasts. In a sense,
Arab music is the summation of musical traditions, each of which has its
own cultural and aesthetic substance and integrity. From a broader perspective,
diversity exists among larger geographical areas. For example, the music
of North Africa, primarily Morocco and Algeria, differs from the music
of Egypt and the Levant in matters of intonation, modality, preference
for certain musical instruments, and degree of exposure and retention
of Andalusian musical influence.Similarly, the music of Egypt differs
in matters of rhythm and intonation from the overall musical traditions
of the Arabian Peninsula and Iraq.
From a closer
perspective, individuality can be seen in various smaller areas and repertoires.
The Ginnawa ethnic group of Morocco has a musical style that is closely
associated with West Africa; similarities include the use of syncopated
rhythm and emphasis on percussion. In Nubia and Sudan, the music employs
pentatonicism, the use of five-tone scales. In Kuwait and Bahrain, pearl
fishermen's songs utilize a high pitched male voice accompanied by distinct
low-pitched drones, complex polyrhythmic clapping, and percussion instruments
including a clay pot comparable in construction and playing technique
to the ghatam of South India. In the Baghdadi chalghi ensemble accompanying
maqâm singing, the instruments usually include the santur, a type
of hammer dulcimer, and the jawzah, a spike-fiddle, both having close
counterparts in the musical traditions of Persia and Central Asia. Similarly,
individual musical features can be found in the liturgies of various non-Muslim
religious groups of the Arab world, including the Maronites of the Levant
and the Copts of Egypt.
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