by Sam Cronk

Bells are apparently universal, but their meaning and performance contexts are not. Made from a wide variety of natural and synthetic materials, including clay, wood, metals of all kinds, and animal hooves, bells are classified as percussive instruments. There are two basic kinds: the body may be closed at one end and open at the other ("cup" bells) or it may be entirely closed and hollow, with a metal pellet inside ("crotals"). Some have clappers, or internal attachments which strike the body when the bell is shaken. Wooden bells such as the Chinese Temple Block, are often clapperless - that is, you strike them on the outside surface with a hammer or rod.

Bells are richly symbolic among many traditions. Americans need only think of the Liberty Bell in Philadelphia, PA, a long-standing symbol of their independence and nationhood. Among Anishnaabek First Nations communities in North America, the sound of bells (or metallic percussion instruments) are also deeply meaningful; it is said that the first thoughts of the Creator was a shimmering, bell-like sound which was answered by the heartbeat or drumming of the earth as it was brought into creation. In Europe, large bells have often been associated with forms of Christian worship, used to signal ceremonial events or perform simple tunes. Saint Patrick is said to have carried a bell into Ireland during the 5th century to help him perform miracles. Some bells are also decorative as well as percussive, such as the small brass "tiger bells" from the Philippines (see image right) often strung on dance girdles and belts. Smaller bells also serve as signaling devices at many daily events, for example to indicate closing time in public buildings or to give the "all aboard" signal at train stations. And farmers still attach bells to livestock to find them more easily.
Not surprisingly, the origins of bells are impossible to pinpoint. Women wore small copper crotals around their ankles and necks in India at least 3000 years ago. According to Percival Price, the Hindu bell is still sacred, representing the universe through its circular form and the lotus with its flaring shape. In China, the chung , (a generic word for bell) dates back to at least 4000 BC. Cast bells constructed in 2500 BC have been recently found in Chinese archaeological excavations, confirming the complexity and sophistication of this early musical culture.
Chinese bells traditionally are considered to have spiritual power. This anonymous text is from 700 BC:

Sonorous are the bells and drums...They bring down with them blessings - rich, rich the growth of grain. They bring down with them blessings - abundance, the abundance. (Price, Bells and Man: 4)

In ancient Greece, clay bells were being manufactured by 2000 BC, while bronze bells can be traced back to at least 500 B.C. In Roman culture, bells and crotals were used during dances, festivals, funerals and even battles; they were also hung as decorations on animals which were sacrificed in religious ceremonies.
Early associations with Christianity date to around 400 AD. Until about the 7th or 8th century, European bells were generally four-sided, and made from forged iron plates which were riveted together. Larger cast bells, made from bronze or other metals, were constructed by the 8th century.
In mediaeval Europe, "chiming" was apparently very popular at least in monasteries- there are many illuminated manuscripts featuring small bells or "chimes" suspended on a stand and struck by hammers. According to oral traditions, St. Dunstan, a patron Saint of England, was an excellent chimer. Clock chimes, with automatic or self-playing mechanisms, date back at least to the Roman era in Great Britain and in 1298, a bell at the old St. Paul's Cathedral in London was struck by a small automated metal figure carrying a javelin.
Carillons are sets of larger bells suspended from horizontal bars; these bells are struck by hammers which are controlled by a keyboard mechanism. The huge, contemporary carillon has at least two complete octaves of bells; larger ensembles include approximately 64 bells.