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Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle
East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E. |
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Our present subject is, fortunately, scarcely affected at all by
these considerations; and the less so, as, thanks to the uniform arrangement
of these dynastic histories, the information regarding the various foreign
nations with which the Court of Zhongguo had come into contact has been
extracted from the Jih-li and collected separately in special geographical
divisions of the work. The Erh-Shih-ssu Shih or "Twenty-four Dynastic Histories,"
contain in all over 3,000 books, and a European scholar who would think
of extracting from them notes on a subject similar to ours, would find
this to be a Herculean labor were it not that the methodical mind of the
Chinese writers had carefully put aside all he wants into special chapters
regarding foreign countries. Thus we find chapters on the Hsiung-nu; on
the South-Western barbarians (Man); on the country of Ta-wan, generally
identified with the present Ferghana, in the Shih-chi of Ssu-ma Ch'ien,
whose work opens the series of the Erh-shih-ssu Shah. Ssu-ma Ch'ien (d.
c. 85 B.C.E.) did not attempt to carry his geographical notes farther
than the countries with which Zhongguo had then come into immediate contact.
His successor, Pan Ku, who, with his sister Chao, compiled the Ch'ien-han-shu
[ "History of the Former Han Dynasty,"] and who died 92 C.E., knows considerably
more about the countries of Central and Western Asia. His geographical
chapters, of which we possess a translation, betray the interest which
had been taken in geographical enterprise since the death of Ssu-ma Ch'ien,
and which must have naturally been increased in the author from the fact
of his being the elder brother of Pan Ch'ao, the famous military traveller
of that period. Pan Ku may have heard of his brother's expedition to the
foreign territories in Western or Central Asia but he was no longer alive
when Pan Ch'ao returned to Zhongguo in 102 C.E.. This may account for
the fact that much of the information for which the Han must have been
indebted to Pan Ch'ao's last expedition found its way into the Hou-han-shu,
or "History of the After Han Dynasty," and not into Pan Ku's
work. The Hou-han-shu, compiled by Fan Yeh of the earlier Sung Dynasty
(420-477 C.E.), is the first authority which gives us a certain number
of details regarding the countries in the extreme west of Asia. The Hsi-yu-chuan,
i.e., "Traditions regarding Western Countries," then became
a regular feature in the dynastic histories, and is found under this or
some similar designation in most of the subsequent Shih. The Hsi-yu-chuan of the Hou-han-shu contains for the first time a
description, consisting of 589 characters, of the westernmost amongst
the countries described in Han literature previous to the Ming dynasty,
the country of Ta-ts'in. In this description we find quite a number of
facts regarding the situation of the country, its boundaries, capital,
people, products, and industries, which would, apart from any collateral
information derived from later histories, have furnished a sufficient
basis for the identification of the country, had not an unfortunate prejudice
at once taken possession of those European sinologues who investigated
the subject, for they held to the opinion that Ta-ts'in, being the most
powerful country described in the Far West, must necessarily be the Roman
Etnpire in its full extent, with Rome as its capital. This theory has
been especially defended by Visdelou and de Guignes, and recently by Bretschneider,
Edkins, and von Richthofen. I must confess that I once shared that prejudice,
and that when, two years ago, I commenced to collect the passages relating
to this question, I did so for the purpose of supporting the arguments
in favor of Rome and Italy. I soon found, however, that a close examination
of the Han accounts, instead of substantiating my original views, induced
me to abandon them altogether. In these records mention is made of the
manufacture of storax, which has been shown by Hanbury to have been at
all times confined to the Levant; of the use of crystal (glass) and precious
stones as architectural ornaments; of foreign ambassadors being driven
by post from the frontier to the capital; of the military system of the
country, which was based on the division of ten and three; of the dangerous
travelling, the roads being infested with tigers and lions, thus compelling
wayfarers to resort to caravans. A consideration of this among other testimony
forcibly suggested the idea that Ta-ts'in was not Rome itself, but one
of its eastern provinces. It is well known that the Nestorian missionaries, whose existence
in China during the 7th and 8th centuries C.E. is witnessed by the celebrated
stone inscription found near the city of Hsi-an-fu in 1625 C.E., declare
Ta-ts'in to be their native country, and the country in which Christ was
born. This clearly points to Syria; and on this evidence several of those
who were familiar with the subject have been induced to abandon the idea
of Rome being the country sought for, in favor of Syria or a part of Syria
(Judaea, Palestine). Paravey adopted that view in 1836; so, some twenty
years later, did Wylie and Pauthier. But the reasons assigned by these
three sinologues for their opinion rest mainly on the Nestorian inscription
itself. They would not be valid in the eyes of those who consider this
document a forgery, as did Voltaire, and recently Renan, neither of whom
were sinologues, supported by K. F. Neumann and St. Julien, who were,
and might have formed a better opinion on the matter but for their prejudice
against those who held the opposite view. I am personally perfectly satisfied
as to the genuineness of this inscription, and think it superfluous to
add any new arguments to those brought forward by Wylie and Pauthier.
What I wish to do, however, is to fill the gap left by those two writers
by collecting such of the arguments in favor of the identity of Ta-ts'in
with Syria as may be derived from ancient and medieval Han historical
literature, altogether apart from the Nestorian inscription. The prime source of the text of the Hsi-yu-chuan should, like that
of the chronological chapters, been sought for in the daily notes made
by the contemporaneous Court chroniclers. These, like the Tu-ch'a-yuan
or Censors of the present dynasty, were allowed to have their own opinion
on the actions of their government, and enjoyed the additional advantage
of not having to openly remonstrate with their monarch, but keeping their
historical records secret. When these were handed to the historian for
publication, the monarchs whose actions were described were no longer
alive or in power, and their family was excluded from government. Neither
the Emperor nor any of his ministers had access to this part of the state
archives. Such, at least, was the principle on which the daily chronicles
were based, whatever transgressions of the rule may have taken place.
The information regarding foreign countries, we must assume, was
entered in the chronicles from depositions made by the various
foreigners arriving at the Court of China. Whether these were in the possession
of credentials from their own monarchs, and if so, whether their credentials
were, or could be, properly scrutinized, is an open question. It appears
that the Han Courts were only too much inclined to look upon the presents
brought to the capital as the essential part of a foreign mission, and
that foreigners, especially foreigners coming from distant countries and
arriving with curiosities of a certain value, were readily received as
tribute-bearers adding to the glory of the most powerful empire. The accounts
of the countries of Central and Western Asia contained in the dynastic
histories exhibit a certain uniformity inasmuch as certain classes of
geographical facts are represented in them with some regularity. It looks
as if the foreigner, on or before being introduced at Court, was subjected
to a kind of cross-examination, and that a uniform set of questions was
addressed to him by means of one or several interpreters. Thus, if a merchant
came from Ceylon to Annam, accompanied by a Ceylonese interpreter who
understood Greek, the trading language of the Indian ports visited by
western merchants, and thence proceeded to Chang-an (or Hsi-an-fu) with
an Annamese who was familiar with the language spoken at Ceylon, and another
Annamese who understood Han, these three interpreters would have been
able to mediate at the examination. The questions asked were perhaps,
of the following kind: (1) What is the name of your country? (2) Where
is it situated? (3) How many li does it measure? (4) How many cities has
it? (5) How many dependent states? (6) How is the capital built? (7) How
many inhabitants live in the capital? (8) What are the products of your
country? etc., etc., and finally, (9) What else can you tell us about
your country? This, I presume, is the origin of the notes in the Jih-li;
which we must assume to have been the basis of our Hsi-yu accounts. The
historical writers did not, of course, confine their work to copying these
chronicles. They were men of literary merit and, as masters of the historical
style, had to arrange the facts they found simply stated into a sort of
narrative. This involved that reports derived from other sources should
not be despised. Hence the occasional episode commencing with "yu-yun",
"it is said by some that, etc." The Ta-ts'in account in the
Hou-han-shu especially, as I have already suggested, may have been enlarged
by what was then known of the results of Kan Ying's enquiries, who had,
in 97 C.E., been sent on a mission to Ta-ts'in by his chief, the general
Pan Ch'ao. Kan Ying, it will be seen hereafter, only reached T'iao-chih
[Babylonia], on the coast of the Persian Gulf,whence a regular traffic
by sea was carried on to the Syrian port Aelana, in the Gulf of Aqaba,
at the head of the Red Sea. Kan Ying, who came into immediate contact
with the sailors who were in the habit of making that journey, has certainly
had the best opportunity for collecting information regarding the object
of his mission. But apart from this, it is very likely that at the Court
of Parthia which, prior to the Romans taking possession of Syria again
in 38 B.C.E., i.e., just 135 years before Kan Ying's journey, had ruled
over that country for several years, information regarding Ta-ts'in could
be easily obtained. This must have been prominently the case with Ta-ts'in
products and articles of trade which came to Zhongguo [China] through
Parthian hands. The San-kuo-chih, "Memoir of the Three Kingdoms," compiled
by Ch'en Shou, who died 297 C.E., comprises the history of the three contemporaneous
states of Wei, Shu, and Wu. That of Wei contains a meager account of some
of the less distant countries, the incompleteness of which, as that of
the whole work, caused the Emperor Wen-ti of the earlier Sung dynasty
to order P'ei Sung-chih to compile a new edition, embodying into Ch'en
Shou's text, which had been written but about 130 years prior to himself,
whatever pertinent notes he could find in other contemporaneous authors.
It is to this fact that we are indebted for the most detailed account
we possess of the country of Ta-ts'in. P'ei Sung-chih's edition was submitted
to the Emperor, as the Preface shows, in the sixth year of his reign,
i.e., 429 C.E.. The work from which this geographical account is quoted
is the Wei-lio, i.e., "Abridged History of the Wei Dynasty,"
by Yu Huan, which must have been written between the end of the Wei dynasty,
i.e. 264 C.E., and the time when P'ei Sung-chih prepared his commentary,
i.e. previous to 429 C.E.. I am not prepared to say whether this work
exists at the present day, but I am inclined to believe that it does not,
and that we must be contented with the extracts given from it in other
works. The catalogue of the Imperial Library at Peking is silent upon
the subject, whereas works compiled during the Ming dynasty, like the
Pen-ts'ao-kang-mu, mention the title as that of one of the authorities
consulted, and the Lei-shu, or encyclopedical works, quote under its name
passages (relating to Ta-ts'in, for instance) which deviate somewhat from
the text inserted into P'ei Sung-chih's commentary so as to make me think
that another text of the Wei-lio has existed not too long ago. This assumption
is strengthened in so far as Ma Tuan-lin's account of Ta-ts'in (ch. 339),
which is identical with that of the Wei-lio in numerous details, contains
certain extensions in the text, thus suggesting the idea that either Ma
Tuan-lin has had before him a text of the Wei-lio more complete than that
quoted in the San-kuo-chih is at the present day, or that both Ma Tuan-lin
and the Wei-lio drew from one common source anterior to the latter. I
have to say that Ma Tuan-lin here, as in his other geographical accounts,
refrains from stating the name of the work from which he has drawn his
information. Such as it is, the enlarged edition of the San-kuo-chih furnishes
information regarding Ta-ts'in which is not only quite as complete, but
also quite as old, as that of the Hsi-yu chapter in the Hou-han-shu. The
Wei-lio account abounds with statements not found in the other standard
histories, the authors of which apparently despised this compilation,
if they were at all aware of its existence; and yet, if we allow for some
confusion made in the geography of dependent states, in the directions
of the compass, distances, etc., we find no cause to look at these accounts
with more suspicion than at any of the other early records. Regarding
these we cannot possibly expect greater accuracy in an ancient Han work
than we find in an ancient western authority, say Ptolemy, especially
if we consider what monstrous deviations from reality may be seen in the
sketches of India and the whole East in maps as recent even as Edrisi's
(1154 C.E.). The fact of Ma Tuan-lin's text being partly based on either
the Wei-lio or some other text very similar to that of the Wei:lio shows
that Han critics of high reputation did not always follow the example
set by court historians. The next history in the Han standard list is the Chin-shu, compiled
by Fang Ch'iao, who died 648 C.E. Its Ta-ts'in account is mainly a reproduction
of what we have learned in the Hou-han-shu, nor do we find much novel
information in the following Shih, the Sung-shu, which is probably a century
older than the former, since its author Shen Yo died in 513 C.E.. The
Nan-ch'i-shu contains a short account of foreign countries which does
not, however, extend as far as Ta-ts'in. The same remark would apply to
the Liang-shu, compiled early during the 7th century C.E., but for a few
pertinent notes in a description of India (Chung T'ien-chu) and a short
account of the reception of a merchant from Ta-ts'in at the court of Sun-ch'tian,
the founder of the Wu dynasty, in 226 C.E. I have searched for further
details regarding this traveller in the older History of Wu contained
in the San-kuo-chih, but without result. In going through the minor histories
I found the first account of some value in the Wei-shu, the history of
the northern Wei dynasty (386-359 C.E.). Although this account repeats many of the statements of the Hou-han-shu and the
Wei-lio, in accordance with the Han method observed up to the present
day, by which all that was recognized as true hundreds of years ago must
be true for ever, and thus may be quoted without further scrutiny, there
are in it signs of independent information having been received in China
since those earlier accounts were compiled. The history of the same dynasty
(the northern Wei) is the subject of a later work, the Pei-shih, which
contains an almost literal reproduction of what we find in the Wei-shu.
Of the histories preceding the Pei-shih I merely mention the Sui-shu,
embracing the period 581-617 C.E., because I found in it the first trace
of the new name under which the country of Ta-ts'in was known thereafter,
viz., Fu-lin. There is no description in this book of either Ta-ts'in
or Fu-lin, but in an account of Persia (ch. 83), I found it stated that
"Fu-lin is 4,500 li north-west of that country." The next important
account is that of the Ch'iu T'ang-shu, i.e., the "Old History of
the T'ang dynasty," which work was remodelled during the 11th century
and republished under the name Hsin T'ang-shu or "New History of
the T'ang dynasty." The account of Fu-lin---for under this name we
have now to look for the ancient Ta-ts'in---contained in the latter supplements
the former, and vice-versa, although many of the facts stated are identical
apart from the difference in the style of language used in describing
them. It may look pedantic to lay stress on two almost identical reports
clothed in different language, but it is, in reality, quite necessary
to make the most out of every Han sentence we can hunt up in ancient authors
relating to one and the same fact. By pursuing this method we not only
glean a number of minor facts which may be contained in one account while
being omitted in the other, but we also succeed in overcoming many of
the difficulties of the text. Many passages would be quite unintelligible
to European and Han scholars alike, if we did not find the key for their
correct meaning in parallel sentences conveying the same idea in different
words. The final account in the Twenty-four Shih is that in the Ming Shih.
Its main features are the tenor of a manifesto handed by the Emperor T'ai-tsu
to a merchant from Fu-lin for transmission to his sovereign, and the mention
of the first modern Christian missionary, Matthaeus Ricci, having arrived
in China. I am not aware of many descriptions of either Ta-ts'in or Fu-lin,
which may be considered authorities, having appeared apart from those
contained in the twenty-four dynastic histories. The Nestorian inscription
(781 C.E.) contains an account of Ta-ts'in, drawn up in truly lapidary
style; and the various encyclopedical works (Lei-shu) frequently allude
to the country in quotations derived from minor works which are either
lost, or not procurable, or forming part of a Ts'ung-shu or "Collection
of Reprints," such as the Wu-Shih-wai-kuo-chuan, "Account of
Foreign Countries at the Time of Wu,"---3rd century C.E., or the
Nan-fang-ts'ao-mu-chuang, a work on the plants, etc., of southern countries.
Foremost amongst the Cyclopedias (though not classed with the Lei-shu
by the Han ) is the Wen-hsien-t'ung-k'ao, the celebrated work
of Ma Tuan-lin. Its chapters regarding foreign countries (ch. 324, seqq.)
may be interesting enough to a Han reader who wishes to learn some of
the wonderful tales told at one time or another of each country enumerated,
but they are of little use to the critical student. A great part of Ma
Tuan-lin's remarks anent Ta-ts'in is apparently derived from the Wei-lio
or from some other records, perhaps even older than the Wei-lio but based
on the same information as the latter, whereas other parts remind again
of the Hou-han-shu. The wording of his text is often slightly altered
from that of the text he copies as it may be traced in the literature
now existing; it therefore serves in many cases as a sort of commentary
to the texts of ancient records, for, as I have already intimated, many
of the linguistic difficulties of the latter, which at first sight look
quite unsurmountable, disappear if we see the same idea expressed in different
words. Some valuable information is contained in the Chu-fan-chih, an account
of various foreign countries, by Chao Ju-kua of the Sung dynasty. I copied
the text of the Fu-lin portion from an edition contained in a "collection
of reprints" entitled Hsiao-chin-chi-yuan. A superficial comparison
of the Chu-fan-chih with what has been said about Ta-ts'in and Fu-lin
in former records will show that by far the greater part of Ju-kua's notes
is derived from the Han and T'ang records. On the other hand, it must
be admitted that certain notes look like independent statements, inasmuch
as they cannot be discovered in any previous work. But even these we may
suspect to have been copied from older books which may not exist now but
may have been consulted by Chao Ju-kua. We possess no direct record as
to the period during which this author lived or wrote, but in the Imperial
Catalogue, 1. c., reference is made to a genealogical table in the Sung-shih,
which contains his name, and from which it appears that he was a descendant
from a member of the Imperial family of the Sung, whose real name was
Chao, just as Hohenzollern is the name of the kings of Prussia, and that
he was born after the eighth generation dating from T'ai-tsung, i.e.,
after the middle of the twelfth century. The "Catalogue" further
states that, foreign ships being allowed to trade at the southern ports
under the southern Sung dynasty, his position as Inspector of Salt Gabel
brought him into frequent contact with foreigners who supplied him with
accounts of the countries they came from. The title given him was that
of Shih-po, which may be translated by "Superintendent of Sea Trade."
The Hsu-wen-hsien-t'ung-k'ao, the continuation of Ma Tuan-lin's work,
quoted in the Yuan-chien-lei-han, ch. 110, p. 33, states that the title
Shih-po, in connection with the superintendence of salt and revenue matters,
was first used in Fu-kien during the 14th year of Chih-yuan, and was abolished
again in order to be replaced by the title Yen-yun-ssu, the term used
at the present day for a Collector of Salt Taxes, in the 24th year of
the same period. This may possibly give us a clue as to the time when
Chao Ju-kua collected the information for his work; for the time during
which alone the post said to have been held by him existed in Fu-kien,
extends from 1277 to 1287 C.E.. Both time and locality seem to be in favor
of the theory here advanced, of the principal information collected with
regard to foreign countries during the Sung and Yuan period originating
there and then. An official of the class described would most probably
have been stationed at the port of Chinchew or Ch'uan-chou-fu, for some
time the provincial capital. Marco Polo's visit to that neighborhood must have taken place soon
after that period. The ports of Fu-kien were then, however, no longer
in the hands of the Sung, who were driven by the advancing Mongols into
the Kuang-tung province; and if the two facts, viz., that of Ju-kua's
having been a member of the Sung family, and that of his having occupied
the post referred to, can be proved, there is room for the suspicion that
he may have maintained his position after the fall of his dynasty by voluntarily
submitting to the Mongol enemy. According to the "Catalogue,"
the chapters regarding foreign countries in the Sung-Shih are
partly based on the information contained in the Chu-fan-chih, as the
latter work contained more geographical detail than the court archives.
The great cyclopedia in 5,000 volumes, the T'u-shu-chi-ch'eng, in
its account of Ta-ts'in and Fu-lin, quotes about all that may
be found with regard to the subject in the standard histories and other
works, and, by naming the work from which each quotation is derived, becomes
infinitely more useful than Ma Tuan-lin's compilation, whose labors, as
well as all the cyclopedias published up to the time of K'ang-hsi, appear
to be almost superseded by this work. Next to collecting oneself the original
passages regarding any special subject, the study of this exhaustive digest
will probably be found the most useful source of information; and it seems
that those who have access to the T'u-shu-chi-ch'eng need not trouble
much about the minor compilations. If such works as Ma Tuan-lin's, the
Yuan-chien-lei-han, etc., yet play a conspicuous part in sinological research,
it is because the larger work has not been accessible. I have collected from the various historical works above referred
to all the accounts of Ta-ts'in and Fu-lin written during the period extending
from the Former Han dynasty up to that of the Ming, i.e., between the
first and seventeenth centuries C.E., and also a few other texts which
seemed necessary in order to understand certain clues as to the route
leading to that country at certain periods. I now offer a set of translations
of all these accounts, the greater part of which is translated for the
first time, whereas those which had been previously translated by others
have been thoroughly revised, and in some passages, sadly misunderstood
by former translators, may pass as independent versions altogether.
From the Shih-Chi, ch. 123, 91 B.C.E..: When the first embassy was sent from Zhongguo [China] to Ar-hsi [Arsacids,
or Parthia], the king of Ar-hsi ordered twenty thousand cavalry to meet
them on the eastern frontier. The eastern frontier was several thousand
li distant from the king's capital. Proceeding to the north one
came across several tens of cities, with very many inhabitants, allied
to that country. After the Han [Chinese] embassy had returned they [the
Parthians] sent forth an embassy to follow the Han embassy to come and
see the extent and greatness of the Han Empire. They offered to the Han
court large birds'-eggs, and jugglers from Li-kan [Syria]. From the Ch'ien-han-shu, ch. 96A, (written c. 90
C.E.), for 91 B.C.E.: When the emperor Wu-ti [140-86 B.C.E.] first sent an embassy to Ar-hsi
[Arsacids, or Parthia], the king ordered a general to meet him on the
eastern frontier with twenty thousand cavalry. The eastern frontier was
several thousand li distant from the king's capital. Proceeding
to the north one came across several tens of cities, the inhabitants of
which were allied with that country. As they sent forth an embassy to
follow the Han [Chinese] embassy, they came to see the country of Zhongguo
[China]. They offered to the Han court large birds'-eggs, and jugglers
from Li-kan [Syria], at which His Majesty was highly pleased. The king
of the country of Ar-hsi rules at the city of P'an-tou [Parthuva, or Hekatompylos];
its distance from Ch'ang-an is 11,600 li. The country is not
subject to a tu-hu [governor]. It bounds north on K'ang-chu,
east on Wu-i-shan-li, west on T'iao-chih [Babylonia]. The soil, climate,
products, and popular customs are the same as those of Wu-i and Chi-pin.
They also make coins of silver, which have the king's face on the obverse,
and the face of his consort on the reverse. When the king dies, they cast
new coins. They have the ta-ma-ch'uo [ostrich]. Several hundred
small and large cities are subject to it, and the country is several thousand
li in extent, that is, a very large country. It lies on the banks
of the Kuei-shui [Oxus River]. The carts and ships of their merchants
go to the neighboring countries. They write on parchment, and draw up
documents in rows running sideways. In the east of Ar-hsi are the Ta-yueh-chih.
From the Hou-Han-Shu, chs. 86, 88 (written 5th
Century C.E.), for 25 - 220 C.E.: During the 9th year [of Yung-yuan, 97 C.E.] the barbarian tribes outside
the frontier and the king of the country of Shan [Armenia], named Yung-yu-tiao,
sent twofold interpreters, and was endowed with state jewels. Ho-ti [Emperor,
89-106 C.E.] conferred a golden seal with a purple ribbon, and the small
chiefs were granted seals, ribbons, and money. During the 1st year of
Yung-ning [120 C.E.] the king of the country of Shan, named Yung-yu-tiao,
again sent an embassy who, being received to His Majesty's presence, offered
musicians and jugglers. The latter could conjure, spit fire, bind and
release their limbs without assistance, change the heads of cows and horses,
and were clever at dancing with up to a thousand balls. They said themselves:
"We are men from the west of the sea; the west of the sea is the
same as Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria]. In the south-west of the country of Shan
one passes through to Ta-ts'in." At the beginning of the following
year they played music at court before An-ti [Emperor, 107-126 C.E.],
when Yung-yu-tiao was invested as a Ta-tu-wei [tributary prince]
of the Han [Chinese] empire by being granted a seal and a ribbon with
gold and silver silk embroidered emblems, every one of which had its own
meaning. The city [Hira] of the country of T'iao-chih [Babylonia] is situated
on a peninsula; its circumference is over forty li and it borders
on the western sea [Persian Gulf/Indian Ocean]. The waters of the sea
crookedly surround it. In the east, and north-east, the road is cut off;
only in the north-west there is access to it by means of a land-road.
The country is hot and low. It produces lions, rhinoceros, feng-niu [Zebu,
Bos indicus], peacocks, and large birds [ostriches?] whose eggs
are like urns. If you turn to the north and then towards the east again
go on horseback some sixty days, you come to Ar-hsi [Arsacids, or Parthia],
to which afterwards it became subject as a vassal state under a military
governor who had control of all the small cities. The country of Ar-hsi
has its residence at the city of Ho-tu [Hekatompylos], it is 25,000 li
distant from Lo-yang. In the north it bounds on K'ang-chu, and in the
south, on Wu-i-shan-li. The size of the country is several thousand
li. There are several hundred small cities with a vast number of
inhabitants and soldiers. On its eastern frontier is the city of Mu-lu
[Avestan "Mouru", modern Merv], which is called Little Ar-hsi
[Parthia Minor]. It is 20,000 li distant from Lo-yang. In the
first year of Chang-ho, of the Emperor Chang-ti [87 C.E.], they sent an
embassy offering lions and fu-pa. The fu-pa has the
shape of a lin [unicorn], but has no horn. In the 9th year of
Yung-yüan of Ho-ti [97 C.E.] the tu-hu [governor] Pan Ch'ao sent
Kan-ying as an ambassador to Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria], who arrived in T'iao-chih
[Babylonia], on the coast of the great sea [Persian Gulf]. When about
to take his passage across the sea, the sailors of the western frontier
of Ar-hsi told Kan-ying: "The sea [Indian Ocean] is vast and great;
with favorable winds it is possible to cross within three months---but
if you meet slow winds, it may also take you two years. It is for this
reason that those who go to sea take on board a supply of three years'
provisions. There is something in the sea which is apt to make man home-sick,
and several have thus lost their lives." When Kan-ying heard this,
he stopped. In the 13th year [101 C.E.] the king of Ar-hsi, Man-k'u, again
offered as tribute lions and large birds [ostriches] from T'iao-chih,
which henceforth were named Ar-hsi-chiao [Parthian birds]. From Ar-hsi
you go west 3,400 li to the country of Uk-man [Ecbatana, modern
Hamadan]; from Uk-man you go west 3,600 li to the country of
Si-pan [Ktesiphon]; from Si-pan you go south, crossing a river [or by
river], and again south-west to the country of Yu-lo, 960 li,
the extreme west frontier of An-hsi; from here you travel south by sea,
and so reach Ta-ts'in [at Aelana, modern Elat]. In this country there
are many of the precious and rare things of the western sea [Red Sea/Indian
Ocean]. The country of Ta-ts'in is also called Li-kan and, as being situated
on the western part of the sea, Hai-hsi-kuo [i.e., "country
of the western part of the sea"]. Its territory amounts to several
thousand li; it contains over four hundred cities, and of dependent
states there are several times ten. The defences of cities are made of
stone. The postal stations and mile-stones on the roads are covered with
plaster. There are pine and cypress trees and all kinds of other trees
and plants. The people are much bent on agriculture, and practice the
planting of trees and the rearing of silk-worms. They cut the hair of
their heads, wear embroidered clothing, and drive in small carriages covered
with white canopies; when going in or out they beat drums, and hoist flags,
banners, and pennants. The precincts of the walled city in which they
live measure over a hundred li in circumference. In the city
there are five palaces, ten li distant from each other. In the
palace buildings they use crystal [glass?] to make pillars; vessels used
in taking meals are also so made. The king goes to one palace a day to
hear cases. After five days he has completed his round. As a rule, they
let a man with a bag follow the king's carriage. Those who have some matter
to submit, throw a petition into the bag. When the king arrives at the
palace, he examines into the rights and wrongs of the matter. The official
documents are under the control of thirty-six chiang [generals?]
who conjointly discuss government affairs. Their kings are not permanent
rulers, but they appoint men of merit. When a severe calamity visits the
country, or untimely rain-storms, the king is deposed and replaced by
another. The one relieved from his duties submits to his degradation without
a murmur. The inhabitants of that country are tall and well-proportioned,
somewhat like the Han [Chinese], whence they are called Ta-ts'in. The
country contains much gold, silver, and rare precious stones, especially
the "jewel that shines at night," "the moonshine pearl,"
the hsieh-chi-hsi, corals, amber, glass, lang-kan [a
kind of coral], chu-tan [cinnabar ?], green jadestone [ching-pi],
gold-embroidered rugs and thin silk-cloth of various colors. They make
gold-colored cloth and asbestos cloth. They further have "fine cloth,"
also called Shui-yang-ts'ui [i.e., down of the water-sheep];
it is made from the cocoons of wild silk-worms. They collect all kinds
of fragrant substances, the juice of which they boil into su-ho
[storax]. All the rare gems of other foreign countries come from there.
They make coins of gold and silver. Ten units of silver are worth one
of gold. They traffic by sea with Ar-hsi and T'ien-chu [India], the profit
of which trade is ten-fold. They are honest in their transactions, and
there are no double prices. Cereals are always cheap. The budget is based
on a well-filled treasury. When the embassies of neighboring countries
come to their frontier, they are driven by post to the capital, and, on
arrival, are presented with golden money. Their kings always desired to
send embassies to Zhongguo [China], but the Ar-hsi wished to carry on
trade with them in Han silks, and it is for this reason that they were
cut off from communication. This lasted till the ninth year of the Yen-hsi
period during the emperor Huan-ti's reign [166 C.E.] when the king of
Ta-ts'in, An-tun [Marcus Aurelius Antoninus], sent an embassy who, from
the frontier of Jih-nan [Annam] offered ivory, rhinoceros horns, and tortoise
shell. From that time dates the direct intercourse with this country.
The list of their tribute contained no jewels whatever, which fact throws
doubt on the tradition. It is said by some that in the west of this country
there is the Jo-shui ["weak water"--probably the Dead
Sea] and the Liu-sha ["flying sands, desert"] near
the residence of the Hsi-wang-mu ["mother of the western
king"], where the sun sets. The Ch'ien-han-shu says: "From
T'iao-chih [Babylonia] west, going over 200 days, one is near the place
where the sun sets"; this does not agree with the present book. Former
embassies from Zhongguo all returned from Wu-i; there were none who came
as far as T'iao-chih. It is further said that, coming from the land-road
of Ar-hsi, you make a round at sea and, taking a northern turn, come out
from the western part of the sea, whence you proceed to Ta-ts'in. The country is densely populated; every ten li [of a road] are
marked by a t'ing; thirty li by a chih [resting-place].
One is not alarmed by robbers, but the road becomes unsafe by fierce tigers
and lions who will attack passengers, and unless these be travelling in
caravans of a hundred men or more, or be protected by military equipment,
they may be devoured by those beasts. They also say there is a flying
bridge [the bridge over the Euphrates at Zeugma] of several hundred li,
by which one may cross to the countries north of the sea. The articles
made of rare precious stones produced in this country are sham curiosities
and mostly not genuine, whence they are not here mentioned. From the Wei-lio (written before 429 C.E.), for
220-264 C.E.: Formerly T'iao-chih [Babylonia] was wrongly believed to be in the west
of Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria]; now its real position is known to be east.
Formerly it was also wrongly believed to be stronger than Ar-hsi [Arsacids,
or Parthia]; now it is changed into a vassal state said to make the western
frontier of Ar-hsi. Formerly it was, further, wrongly believed that the
Jo-shui [Dead Sea] was in the west of T'iao-chih; now the Jo-shui is believed
to be in the west of Ta-ts'in. Formerly it was wrongly believed that,
going over two hundred days west of T'iao-chih, one came near the place
where the sun sets; now, one comes near the place where the sun sets by
going west of Ta-ts'in. The country of Ta-ts'in, also called Li-kan [Syria],
is on the west of the great sea [Indian Ocean] west of Ar-hsi and T'iao-chih.
From the city of Ar-ku [Uruku, modern Warka] , on the boundary of Ar-hsi
one takes passage in a ship and, traversing the west of the sea, with
favorable winds arrives [at Aelana, modern Elat, on the Gulf of Aqaba]
in two months; with slow winds, the passage may last a year, and with
no wind at all, perhaps three years. This country is on the west of the
sea whence it is commonly called Hai-hsi [Egypt]. There is a river [the
Nile] coming out from the west of this country, and there is another great
sea [the Mediterranean]. In the west of the sea there is the city of Ali-san
[Alexandria]. Before one arrives in the country one goes straight north
from the city of U-tan [Aden]. In the south-west one further travels by
a river which on board ship one crosses in one day [again the Nile]; and
again south-west one travels by a river which is crossed in one day [still
the Nile]. There are three great divisions of the country [Delta, Heptanomis,
Thebaid]. From the city of Ar-ku one goes by land due north to the north
of the sea; and again one goes due west to the west of the sea; and again
you go due south to arrive there. At the city of Ali-san, you travel by
river on board ship one day, then make a round at sea, and after six days'
passage on the great sea [the Mediterranean], arrive in this country.
There are in the country in all over four hundred smaller cities; its
size is several thousand li in all directions of the compass.
The residence of their king lies on the banks of a river estuary [Antioch-on-the-Orontes].
They use stone in making city walls. In this country there are the trees
sung [pine], po[cypress], huai [sophora?],
tzu [a kind of euphorbia?]; bamboos, rushes, poplars, willows, the
wu-t'ung tree, and all kinds of other plants. The people are
given to planting on the fields all kinds of grain. Their domestic animals
are: the horse, the donkey, the mule, the camel, and the mulberry silk-worm.
There are many jugglers who can issue fire from their mouths, bind and
release themselves, and dance on twenty balls. In this country they have
no permanent rulers, but when an extraordinary calamity visits the country,
they elect as king a worthier man, while discharging the old king, who
does not even dare to feel angry at this decision. The people are tall,
and upright in their dealings, like the Han [Chinese], but wear foreign
dress; they call their country another "Middle Kingdom" [probably
from "Mediterranean" or "Middle of the Land"]. They always wished to send embassies to Zhongguo [China], but the Ar-hsi
[Parthians] wanted to make profit out of their trade with us, and would
not allow them to pass their country. They can read foreign books. They
regulate by law public and private matters. The palace buildings are held
sacred. They hoist flags, beat drums, use small carriages with white canopies,
and have postal stations like the Han. Coming from Ar-hsi you make a round
at sea and, in the north, come to this country. The people live close
together. They have no robbers and thieves; but there are fierce tigers
and lions that will attack travellers, and unless these go in caravans,
they cannot pass the country. They have several times ten small kings.
The residence of their king is over a hundred li in circuit.
They have official archives. The king has five palaces, ten li
apart from each other. The king hears the cases of one palace in the morning
till being tired at night; the next morning he goes to another palace;
in five days he has completed his round. Thirty-six generals always consult
upon public matters; if one general does not go to the meeting, they do
not consult. When the king goes out he usually gets one of his suite to
follow him with a leather bag, into which petitioners throw a statement
of their cases; on arrival at the palace, the king examines into the merits
of each case. They use crystal in making the pillars of palaces as well
as implements of all kinds. They make bows and arrows. The following dependent small states are enumerated separately, viz.,
the kings of Ala-san [Alexandria-Euphrates, or Charax Spasinu], Lu-fen
[Nikephorium], Ch'ieh-lan [Palmyra], Hsien-tu [Damascus], Si-fu [Emesa],
and Ho-lat [Hira]; and of other small kingdoms there are very many; it
is impossible to enumerate them one by one. The country produces fine
ch'ih [hemp or hemp cloth]. They make gold and silver money;
one coin of gold is worth ten of silver. They weave fine cloth, and say
they use the down of water-sheep in making it; it is called Hai-hsi-pu
[cloth from the west of the sea]. In this country all the domestic-animals
come out of the water. Some say that they do not only use sheep's wool,
but also the bark of trees [vegetable fiber?] and the silk of wild silk-worms
in weaving cloth, and the Ch'u-shu, the T'a-teng, and Chi-chang class
of goods [serge or plush rugs?] of their looms are all good; their colors
are of brighter appearance than are the colors of those manufactured in
the countries on the east of the sea. Further, they were always anxious
to get Han silk for severing it in order to make hu-ling [damask,
gauze?], for which reason they frequently trade by sea with the countries
of Ar-hsi. The sea-water being bitter and unfit for drinking is the cause
that but few travellers come to this country. The hills in this country
produce inferior jade-stones of nine colors, viz., blue, carnation,
yellow, white, black, green, crimson, red, and purple. The Chiu-se-shih[nine-colored
stones] which are now found in the I-wu-shan belong to this category.
During the third year of Yang-chia [134 C.E.] the king and minister of
Su-le [Kashgar?] presented to the court each a golden girdle beset with
blue stones [lapis lazuli] from Hai-hsi, and the Chin-hsi-yu-chiu-t'u
says: the rare stones coming from the countries of Chi-pin [Afghanistan?]
and T'iao-chih [Babylonia] are inferior jadestones. The following products are frequently found in Ta-ts'in: Gold. Silver.
Copper. Iron. Lead. Tin. Tortoises. White horses. Red hair. Hsieh-chi-hsi. Tortoise
shell. Black bears. Ch'ih-ch'ih.P'i-tu-shu. Large conches. Ch'e-ch'u.
Carnelian stones. Southern gold. King-fishers' gems. Ivory. Fu-ts'ai-yu. Ming-yueh-chu. Yeh-kuang-chu. Real white pearls.
Amber. Corals. Ten colors of opaque glass, viz., carnation, white,
black, green, yellow, blue, purple, azure, red, and red-brown. Ch'iu-lin
Lang-kan. Rock crystal. Mei-kuei [garnets?]. Realgar
and orpiment. Five colors of Pi. Ten kinds of Jade, viz.,
yellow, white, black, green, a brownish red, crimson, purple, gold, yellow,
azure, and a reddish yellow. Five colors of Ch'u-shu [rugs?].
Five colors T'ao-pu. Five colors of T'a- teng[rugs?].
Chiang-ti. Nine colors of Shou-hsia t'a-teng. Curtains
interwoven with gold. Gold embroideries. Five colors of Tou-cHan [Chinese]g.
Damasks of various colors. Chin-t'u-pu [Gold colored cloth?].
Fei-ch'ih-pu. Fa-lu-pu. Fei-ch'ih-ch 'u-pu. Asbestos cloth. O-lo-te-pu.
Pa-tse-pu. To-tai-pu. Wen-se-pu. I-wei-mu-erh. Storax. Ti-ti-mi-mi-tou-na.
Pai-fu-tzu. Hsun-lu. Yu-chin.Yun-chiao-hsun, in all 12 kinds of vegetable
fragrant substances. After the road from Ta-ts'in had been performed from the north of the
sea by land, another road was tried which followed the sea to the south
and connected with the north of the outer barbarians at the seven principalities
of Chiao-chih [Cochin China (South Vietnam)]; and there was also a water-road
leading through to Yi-chou and Yung-ch'ang [in the present Yunnan]. It
is for this reason that curiosities come from Yung-ch'ang. Formerly only
the water-road was spoken of; they did not know there was an overland
route. Now the accounts of the country are as follows. The number of inhabitants
cannot be stated. This country is the largest in the west of the Ts'ung-ling.
The number of small rulers established under its supremacy is very large.
We, therefore, record only the larger ones. The king of Ala-san [Charax
Spasinu] is subject to Ta-ts'in. His residence lies right in the middle
of the sea. North you go to Lu-fen [Nikephorium] by water half a year,
with quick winds a month; it is nearest to the city of Ar-ku [Uruk, modern
Warka] in Ar-hsi [Parthia]. South-west you go to the capital of Ta-ts'in
[Antioch-on-the-Orontes]; we do not know the number of li. The
king of Lu-fen [Nikephorium] is subject to Ta-ts'in. His residence is
2,000 li distant from the capital of Ta-ts'in. The flying bridge across
the river [the bridge over the Euphrates at Zeugma] in Ta-ts'in west of
the city of Lu-fen is 230 li in length. The road, if you cross
the river, goes to the south-west; if you make a round on the river, you
go due west. The king of Ch'ieh-lan [Palmyra] is subject to Ta-ts'in.
Coming from the country of Si-t'ao [Sittake] you go due south, cross a
river, and then go due west to Ch'ieh-lan 3,000 li; when the
road comes out in the south of the river, you go west. Coming from Ch'ieh-lan
you go again straight to the country of Si-fu [Emesa] on the western river
600 li; where the southern road joins the Si-fu road there is
the country of Hsien-tu [Damascus] in the south-west. Going due south
from Ch'ieh-lan and Si-fu there is the "Stony Land" [Arabia
Petraea]; in the soil of the Stony Land there is the great sea [Red Sea]
which produces corals and real pearls. In the north of Ch'ieh-lan, Si-fu,
Si-pan [Ktesiphon] and Uk-man [Ecbatana] there is a range of hills extending
from east to west [the Taurus Mountains]; in the east of Ta-ts'in as well
as of Hai-tung [the country on the eastern arm of the Great Sea, i.e.,
on the Persian Gulf] there are ranges of hills extending from north
to south [the Zagros Mountains]. The king of Hsien-tu is subject to Ta-ts'in. From his residence you go
600 li north-east to Si-fu. The king of Si-fu is subject to Ta-ts'in.
From his residence you go to Ho-lat [Hira] north-east 340 li,
across the river. Ho-lat is subject to Ta-ts'in. Its residence is in the
north-east of Si-fu across the river. From Ho-lat north-east you again
cross a river to Si-lo [Seleukia]; and north-east of this you again cross
a river. The country of Si-lo is subject to Ar-hsi [Parthia] and is on
the boundary of Ta-ts'in. In the west of Ta-ts'in there is the water of
the sea [the Mediterranean]; west of this is the water of a river [the
Orontes]; west of the river there is a large range of hills extending
from north to south [the Lebanon]; west of this there is the Ch'ih-shui
[Jordan River?]; west of the Ch'ih-shui there is the White Jade Hill;
on the White Jade Hill there is the Hsi-wang-mu; west of the Hsi-wang-mu
there is the rectified Liu-sha [the "Flying Sands"]; west of
the Liu-sha there are the four countries of Ta-hsia, Chien-sha, Shu-yu
and Yueh-chih. West of these there is the Hei-shui [Black or Dark River]
which is reported to be the western terminus of the world. From the Chin-shu, ch. 97 (written early 7th Century
C.E.), for 265-419 C.E.: Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria], also called Li-kan, is in the western part of
the western sea [Persian Gulf]. In this country several thousand li
in all directions of the compass are covered with cities and other inhabited
places. Its capital is over a hundred li in circumference. The
inhabitants use coral in making the kingposts of their dwellings; they
use opaque glass in making walls, and crystal in making the pedestals
of pillars. Their king has five palaces. The palaces are ten li
distant from each other. Every morning the king hears cases in one palace;
when he has finished he begins anew. When the country is visited by an
extraordinary calamity, a wiser man is elected; the old king is relieved
from his duties, and the king so dismissed does not dare to consider himself
ill-treated. They have keepers of official records and interpreters who
are acquainted with their style of writing. They have also small carriages
with white canopies, flags, and banners, and postal arrangements, just
as we have them in Zhongguo [China]. The inhabitants are tall, and their
faces resemble those of the Han [Chinese], but they wear foreign dress.
Their country exports much gold and precious stones, shining pearls, and
large conches; they have the "jewel that shines at night," the
hsieh-chi-hsi, and asbestos cloth; they know how to embroider
cloth with gold thread and weave gold-embroidered rugs. They make gold
and silver coins; ten silver coins are worth one gold coin. The inhabitants
of Ar-hsi [Arsacids, or Parthia] and T'ien-chu [India] have trade with
them by sea; its profit is hundred-fold. When the envoys of neighboring
countries arrive there, they are provided with golden money. The water
of the great sea which is crossed on the road thither is salt and bitter,
and unfit for drinking purposes; the merchants travelling to and fro are
provided with three years' provisions; hence, there are not many going.
At the time of the Han dynasty, the tu-hu Pan Ch'ao sent his
subordinate officer Kan-ying as an envoy to that country; but the sailors
who were going out to sea said, "that there was something about the
sea which caused one to long for home; those who went out could not help
being seized by melancholy feelings; if the Han envoy did not care for
his parents, his wife, and his children, he might go." Ying could
not take his passage. During the T'ai-k'ang period of the emperor Wu-ti
[280-290 C.E.] their king sent an envoy to offer tribute. From the Sung-shu, ch. 97 (written c. 500 C.E.),
for 420-478 C.E.: As regards Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria] and T'ien-chu [India], far out on the
western ocean [Indian Ocean], we have to say that; although the envoys
of the two Han dynasties [Chang Ch'ien, and Pan Ch'ao] have experienced
the special difficulties of this road, yet traffic in merchandise has
been effected, and goods have been sent out to the foreign tribes, the
force of winds driving them far away across the waves of the sea. There
are lofty ranges of hills quite different from those we know and a great
variety of populous tribes having different names and bearing uncommon
designations, they being of a class quite different from our own. All
the precious things of land and water come from there, as well as the
gems made of rhinoceros' horns and king-fishers' stones [chrysoprase],
she-chu [serpent pearls] and asbestos cloth, there being innumerable
varieties of these curiosities; and also the doctrine of the abstraction
of mind in devotion to the shih-chu ["lord of the world"
or "the Buddha"---here meaning "the Christ"] all this
having caused navigation and trade to be extended to those parts. From the Liang-shu, ch. 54 (written c. 629 C.E.),
for 502-556 C.E.: In the west of it [viz., Chung T'ien-chu, or India] they carry
on much trade by sea to Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria] and Ar-hsi [Arsacids, or
Parthia], especially in articles of Ta-ts'in, such as all kinds of precious
things, coral, amber, chin-pi [gold jadestone], chu-chi
[a kind of pearl], lang-kan, Yu-chin [turmeric?] and storax.
Storax is made by mixing and boiling the juice of various fragrant trees;
it is not a natural product. It is further said that the inhabitants of
Ta-ts'in gather the storax plant, squeeze its juice out, and thus make
a balsam [hsiang-kao]; they then sell its dregs to the traders
of other countries; it thus goes through many hands before reaching Zhongguo
[China], and, when arriving here, is not so very fragrant. Yu-chin
[turmeric ?] only comes from the country of Chi-pin [a country near the
Persian gulf], etc., etc. In the ninth year of the Yen-hsi period of Huan-ti of the Han dynasty
[166 C.E.] the king of Ta-ts'in, An-tun [Marcus Aurelius Antoninus], sent
an embassy with tribute from the frontier of Jih-nan [Annam]; during the
Han period they have only once communicated with Zhongguo. The merchants
of this country frequently visit Fu-nan [Siam] Jih-nan [Annam] and Chiao-chih
[Cochin China]; but few of the inhabitants of these southern frontier
states have come to Ta-ts'in. During the fifth year of the Huang-wu period
of the reign of Sun-ch'uan [226 C.E.] a merchant of Ta-ts'in, whose name
was Ts'in-lun, came to Chiao-chih [Cochin China]; the prefect [t'ai-shou]
of Chiao-chih, Wu Miao, sent him to Sun-ch'uan [the Wu emperor], who asked
him for a report on his native country and its people. Ts'in-lun prepared
a statement, and replied. At the time Chu-ko K'o [Nephew to Chu-ko Liang,
alias K'ung-ming] chastised Tan-yang [or Kiang-nan] and they
had caught blackish colored dwarfs. When Ts'in-lun saw them he said that
in Ta-ts'in these men are rarely seen. Sun-ch'uan then sent male and female
dwarfs, ten of each, in charge of an officer, Liu Hsien of Hui-chi [a
district in Chekiang], to accompany Ts'in-lun. Liu Hsien died on the road,
whereupon Ts'in-lun returned direct to his native country. From the Wei-Shu, ch. 102 (written before 572 C.E.),
for 386-556 C.E.: The country of Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria] is also called Li-kan [Syria].
Its capital is the city of An-tu [Antioch]. From T'iao-chih [Babylonia]
west you go by sea, making a bent, ten thousand li. From Tai
[Ta-t'ung fu?] it is distant 39,400 li. By the side of its sea
one comes out at what is like an arm of the sea [the Gulfs of Aqaba and
Suez], and that the east and the west of the country look into that arm
of the sea is a natural arrangement. Its territory amounts to six thousand
li. It lies between two seas. This country is peacefully governed,
and human dwellings are scattered over it like stars. The royal capital
[Antioch] is divided into five cities, each five li square; its
circuit is 60 li. The king resides in the middle city. In the
city there are established eight high officials to rule over the four
quarters of the country; but in the royal city there are also established
eight high officials who divide among themselves the government over the
four cities. When government matters are deliberated upon, and if in the
four quarters of the country there are cases not decided, the high officials
of the four cities hold a council at the king's place. After the king
has sanctioned their decision it is put into force. Once in three years
the king goes out to convince himself of the morality of the people. If
anyone has suffered an injustice he states his complaint to the king who,
in minor cases, will censure, but in important cases, will dismiss the
country official responsible for it, appointing a worthier man in his
stead. The inhabitants are upright and tall; their mode of dressing, their
carriages and flags, resemble those of the Han [Chinese], whence other
foreign nations call them Ta-ts'in. The country produces all kinds of
grain, the mulberry tree and hemp. The inhabitants busy themselves with
silk-worms and fields. There is abundance of ch'iu-lin [a kind
of jadestone]; lang-kan [a kind of coral]; shen-kuei
[a kind of tortoise or its shell]; white horses; chu-lieh [lit.
"red bristles"--a gem]; ming-chu [shining pearls];
yeh-kuang-pi [the jewel that shines at night]. South-east you go to Chiao-chih [Cochin China]. There is also connection
by water with the principalities of Yi-chou [Yunnan] and Yung-ch'ang [near
Bhamo]. Many rare objects come from this country. In the west of the water
of the sea west of Ta-ts'in there is a river; the river flows southwest
[Orontes]; west of the river there are the Nan-pei-shan [the Lebanon];
west of the hills there is the Red Water [Red Sea/Gulf of Aqaba]; west
of this is the Pai-yu-shan [Mt. Sinai]; west of the Jade Hill is the Hsi-wang-mu-shan
[Hill of the Western King's Mother], where a temple is made of jadestone
[the Pyramids]. It is said that from the western boundary of Ar-hsi [Arsacids,
or Parthia], following the crooked shape of the seacoast, you can also
go to Ta-ts'in, over 40,000 li. Although in that country sun
and moon, and the constellations, are quite the same as in Zhongguo, former
historians say that going a hundred li west of T'iao-chih [Babylonia]
you come to the place where the sun sets; this is far from being true.
From the Chiu-t'ang-shu, ch. 198 (written mid-10th
Century C.E.), for 618-906 C.E.: The country of Fu-lin [Byzantium], also called Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria],
lies above the western sea [Indian Ocean]. In the southeast it borders
on Po-si [Persia]. Its territory amounts to over 10,000 li. Of
cities there are four hundred. Inhabited places are close together. The
eaves, pillars, and window-bars of their palaces are frequently made with
crystal and opaque glass. There are twelve honorable ministers who conjointly
regulate government matters. They ordinarily let a man take a bag and
follow the king's carriage. When the people have a complaint they throw
a written statement into the bag. When the king comes back to the palace
he decides between right and wrong. Their kings are not permanent rulers,
but they select men of merit. If an extraordinary calamity visits the
country, or if wind and rain come at the wrong time, he is deposed and
another man is put in his stead. The king's cap is shaped like a bird
raising its wings; its trimmings are beset with precious pearls; he wears
silk-embroidered clothing, without a lapel in front. He sits on a throne
with golden ornaments. He has a bird like a goose; its feathers are green,
and it always sits on a cushion by the side of the king. Whenever anything
poisonous has been put into the king's meals, the bird will crow. The
walls of their capital are built of granite, and are of enormous height
[the Theodosian triple walls]. The city[Constantinople] contains in all
over 100,000 households [some 500,000 to 600,000 inhabitants]. In the
south it faces the great sea. In the east of the city there is a large
gate; its height is over twenty chang [over 235 feet]; it is
beset with yellow gold [bronze] from top to bottom, and shines at a distance
of several li. Coming from outside to the royal residence there
are three large gates beset with all kinds of rare and precious stones.
On the upper floor of the second gate they have suspended a large golden
scale, twelve golden balls are suspended from the scale-stick by which
the twelve hours of the day are shown. A human figure has been made all
of gold of the size of a man standing upright, on whose side, whenever
an hour has come, one of the golden balls will drop, the dingling sound
of which makes known the divisions of the day without the slightest mistake
[a clepsydra]. In the palaces, pillars are made of se-se [lapis
lazuli], the floors of yellow gold [probably bronze], the leaves of folding
doors of ivory, beams of fragrant wood. They have no tiles, but powdered
plaster is rammed down into a floor above the house. This floor is perfectly
firm and of glossy appearance like jade-stone. When, during the height
of summer, the inhabitants are oppressed by heat, they lead water up and
make it flow over the platform, spreading it all over the roof by a secret
contrivance so that one sees and knows not how it is done, but simply
hears the noise of a well on the roof; suddenly you see streams of water
rushing down from the four eaves like a cataract; the draught caused thereby
produces a cooling wind, which is due to this skilful contrivance [a common
device in the Near East]. It is customary for men to have their hair cut and wear robes leaving
the right arm bare. Women have no lapels on their dresses, they wear turbans
of embroidered cloth. The possession of a great fortune confers superior
rank on its owner. There are lambs which grow in the ground; the inhabitants
wait till they are about to sprout, and then screen them off by building
walls to prevent the beasts which are at large outside from eating them
up. The navel of these lambs is connected with the ground; when it is
forcibly cut the animal will die, but after the people have fixed the
buds themselves' they frighten them by the steps of horses or the beating
of drums, when the lambs will yield a sound of alarm, and the navel will
be detached, and then the animal may be separated from the water-plant.
The inhabitants are in the habit of cutting their hair and wearing embroidered
clothing; they drive in small carriages with white canopies; when going
in or out they beat drums and hoist flags, banners, and pennants. The
country contains much gold, silver, and rare gems. There is the Yeh-kuang-pi
[the jewel that shines at night]; the ming-yüeh-chu [the moon-shine
pearl]; the hsieh-chi-hsi [the chicken-frightening rhinoceros
stone]; large conches; the che-ch'u [mother-of-pearl], carnelian
stones; the k'ung-ts'ui [Jadeite]; corals; amber; and all the
valuable curiosities of the West are exported from this country. The emperor Yang-ti of the Sui dynasty [605-617 C.E.] always wished to
open intercourse with Fu-lin, but did not succeed. In the 17th year of
the period Cheng-kuan [643 C.E.], the king of Fu-lin Po-to-li [Constans
II Pogonatus, Emperor 641-668 C.E.] sent an embassy offering red glass,
lu-chin-ching [green gold gems], and other articles. T'ai-tsung
[the then ruling emperor] favored them with a message under his imperial
seal and graciously granted presents of silk. Since the Ta-shih [the Arabs]
had conquered these countries they sent their commander-in-chief, Mo-i
[Mo'awiya], to besiege their capital city; by means of an agreement they
obtained friendly relations, and asked to be allowed to pay every year
tribute of gold and silk; in the sequel they became subject to Ta-shih.
In the second year of the period Ch'ien-feng [667 C.E.] they sent an embassy
offering Ti-yeh-ka. In the first year of the period Ta-tsu [701
C.E.] they again sent an embassy to our court. In the first month of the
seventh year of the period K'ai-yuan [719 C.E.] their lord sent the ta-shou-ling
[an officer of high rank] of T'u-huo-lo [Khazarstan] to offer lions and
ling-yang[antelopes], two of each. A few months after, he further
sent ta-te-seng ["priests of great virtue"] to our
court with tribute. From the Hsin-t'ang-shu, ch. 221 (written mid-11th
Century C.E.), for 1060 C.E.: Fu-lin [Byzantium] is the ancient Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria]. It lies above
the western sea [Indian Ocean]. Some call it Hai-hsi-kuo [i.e.,
"country on the west of the sea"]. It is 40,000 li
distant from our capital and lies in the west of Shan [Armenia]; north
you go straight to the Ko-sa tribe [Khazars] of Tu-ch'ueh. In the west
it borders on the sea-coast with the city of Ali-san [Alexandria]. In
the south-east it borders on Po-si [Persia]. Its territory amounts to
10,000 li; of cities there are four hundred; of soldiers a million.
Ten li make one t'ing; three t'ing make one
chih. Of subjected small countries there are several times ten.
Those which are known by name are called Ala-san [Charax Spasinu] and
Lu-fen [Nikephorium]; Ala-san is direct north-east, but we cannot obtain
the number of li of its road; in the east, by sea 2000 li,
you come to the Lu-fen country. The capital of Fu-lin [Constantinople]
is built of granite stone; the city is eighty li broad; the east
gate is twenty chang[235 feet] high and chased with yellow gold
[bronze]. The royal palace has three portals which are beset with precious
stones. In the middle portal there is a large golden scale; a man made
all of gold, standing [a clepsydra]. On the yard of that scale there are
hanging twelve little balls, one of which will fall fown whenever an hour
is completed. In making the pillars of palaces they use se-se,
and in making the kingposts of their roofs they use rock crystal and opaque
glass; in making floors they use beams of fragrant wood and yellow gold;
the leaves of their folding doors are of ivory. Twelve honored ministers have joint charge of the government. When the
king goes out, a man follows him with a bag, and whatever complaints there
may be are thrown into the bag; on returning he examines into right and
wrong. When the country is visited by an extraordinary calamity, the king
is deposed and a worthier man is placed in his position. The king's official
cap is like the wings of a bird, and pearls are sewn on it; his garments
are of embroidered silk, but there is no lapel in front. He sits on a
couch with golden ornaments; at his side there is a bird like a goose,
with green feathers; when his majesty eats anything poisonous it will
crow. There are no roofs made of earthen tiles; but the roofs are overlaid
with white stones, hard and shining like jadestone. During the height
of summer heat, water is laid up and made to flow down from the top, the
draught thereby caused producing wind. The men there cut their hair; they
wear embroidered clothing in the shape of a gown that leaves the right
arm bare. They ride in heavy and light carriages and carts covered with
white canopies. When going out or coming back they hoist flags and beat
drums. Married women wear embroidered tiaras. The millionaires of the
country are the official aristocracy. The inhabitants enjoy wine and have
a fancy for dry cakes. There are amongst them many jugglers who can issue
fire from their faces, produce rivers and lakes from their hands, and
banners and tufts of feathers from their mouths, and who, raising their
feet, drop pearls and jadestones. They have clever physicians who, by
opening the brain and extracting worms, can cure mu-sheng [a
sort of blindness]. The country contains much gold and silver; the jewel
that shines at night and the moon-shine pearl; large conches; che-ch'u
[mother-of-pearl?]; carnelian stones; mu-nan [a kind of pearl];
king-fishers' feathers [lapis lazuli]; and amber. They weave the hair
of the water-sheep [shui-yang] into cloth which is called Hai-hsi-pu
[cloth from the west of the sea]. In the sea there are coral islands.
The fishers sit in large boats and let wire nets into the water down to
the corals. When the corals first grow from the rocks they are white like
mushrooms; after a year they turn yellow; after three years they turn
red. Then the branches begin to intertwine, having grown to a height of
three to four chih [up to five feet]. The net being cast the
coral roots get entangled in the net, when the men on board have to turn
round in order to take them out. If they miss their time in fishing for
it the coral will decay. On the western sea [Indian Ocean] there are markets
where the traders do not see one another, the price being deposited by
the side of the merchandise; they are called "spirit markets."
There is a quadruped called Ts'ung; it has the size of a dog,
is fierce and repulsive, and strong. In a northern district there is a
sheep that grows out of the ground; its navel is attached to the ground,
and if it is cut the animal will die. The inhabitants will frighten them
by the steps of horses or by beating drums. The navel being thus detached,
they are taken off the water plants; they do not make flocks. During the
17th year of Cheng-kuan [643 C.E.] the king Po-to-li [Constans II Pogonatus,
Emperor 641-668 C.E.] sent an embassy offering red glass and lu-chin-ching
[green gold gems], and a cabinet order was issued as an acknowledgment.
When the Ta-shih [Arabs] usurped power over these countries, they sent
their general, Mo-i [Mo'awiya, then Governor of Syria, afterwards Caliph
661-680 C.E.], to reduce them to order. Fu-lin obtained peace by an agreement,
but in the sequel became subject to Ta-shih. From the period Ch'ien-feng
[666-668 C.E.] till the period Ta-tsu [701 C.E.] they have repeatedly
offered tribute to the Han [Chinese] court. In the seventh year of the
K'ai-yuan period [719 C.E.] they offered through the ta-yu [a
high official] of T'u-huo-lo [Khazarstan] lions and ling-yang
[antelopes]. Crossing the desert in the south-west of Fu-lin, at a distance of 2,000
li there are two countries called Mo-lin ['Alwa, or Upper Kush]
and Lao-p'o-sa [Maqurra, or Lower Kush]. Their inhabitants are black and
of a violent disposition. The country is malarious and has no vegetation.
They feed their horses on dried fish, and live themselves on hu-mang
[the Persian date--Phoenix dactylifera]. They are not ashamed
to have most frequent illicit intercourse with savages; they call this
"establishing the relation between lord and subject." On one
of seven days they refrain from doing business, and carouse all night.
From the Nestorian Stone Inscription, cols. 12-13
(written 781 C.E.): According to the Hsi-yu-t'u-chi and the historical records of
the Han and Wei dynasties, the country of Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria] begins
in the south at the Coral Sea, and extends in the north to the Chung-pau-shan
[hills of precious stones], it looks in the west to "the region
of the immortals" and "the flowery groves"; in the east
it bounds on "the long winds" and "the weak water"
[the Dead Sea]. This country produces fire-proof cloth [asbestos]; the
life-restoring incense; the ming-yueh-chu [moon-shine pearl];
and the yeh-kuang-pi [jewel that shines at night]. Robberies
are unknown there, and the people enjoy peace and happiness. Only the
luminous [i.e., Christian] religion is practised; only virtuous
rulers occupy the throne. This country is vast in extent; its literature
is flourishing. From the Sung-shih, ch. 490 (written late 13th
Century C.E.), for 960-1279 C.E.: The country of Fu-lin [Byzantium]. South-east of it you go to Mei-lu-ku
[Kilikia ("Cilicia")]; north you go to the sea [Black Sea];
both forty days' journey; west you go to the sea [Mediterranean], thirty
days' journey; in the east, starting from western Ta-shih, you come to
Yu-tien [Khoten], Hui-ho and Ch'ing-t'ang, and finally reach Zhongguo
[China]. They have during former dynasties not sent tribute to our court.
During the tenth month of the fourth year of the period Yuan-feng [November,
1081 C.E.], their king, Mieh-li-i-ling-kai-sa [Michael VII Parapinaces
Caesar], first sent the ta-shou-ling [a high official] Ni-si-tu-ling-si-meng-p'an
to offer as tribute saddled horses, sword-blades, and real pearls. He
said: the climate of this country is very cold; houses there have no tiles;
the products are gold, silver, pearls, western silk cloth, cows, sheep,
horses' camels with single humps, pears, almonds, dates, pa-lan [a
kind of date], millet, and wheat. They make wine from grapes; their musical
instruments are the lute, the hu-ch'in [the "tea-pot-shaped
lute"]; the hsiao-pi-li[a kind of flageolet]; and the p'ien-ku
["side drum"]. The king dresses in red and yellow robes, and
wears a turban of silken cloth interwoven with gold thread. In the third
month every year he goes to the Temple of Fou-shih [ "Temple
of Buddha", here meaning either Muhammed or Christ; in other places
the Qu'ran is described as Fou-ching".], to sit on a red
couch [palanquin?] which he gets the people to lift. His honored servants
[ministers, courtiers, priests?] are dressed like the king, but wear blue,
green, purple, white mottled, red, yellow, or brown stuff, wear turbans
and ride on horseback. The towns and the country districts are each under
the jurisdiction of a shou-ling [chief, sheik?]. Twice a year,
during the summer and autumn, they must offer money and cloth [chin-ku-po].
In their criminal decisions they distinguish between great and small offences.
Light offences are punished by several tens of blows with the bamboo;
heavy offences with up to 200 blows; capital punishment is administered
by putting the culprit into a feather bag which is thrown into the sea.
They are not bent on making war to neighboring countries, and in the case
of small difficulties try to settle matters by correspondence; but when
important interests are at stake they will also send out an army. They
cast gold and silver coins' without holes, however; on the pile they cut
the words Mi-le-fou, which is a king's name. The people are forbidden
to counterfeit the coin. During the sixth year of Yuan-yu [1091 C.E.]
they sent two embassies, and their king was presented, by imperial order,
with 200 pieces of cloth, pairs of white gold vases, and clothing with
gold bound in a girdle. Ma Tuan-lin, Wen-hsien-t'ung-k'ao, ch. 330 (written
late 13th Century C.E.): Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria], also called Li-kan [Syria], has been first communicated
with during the later Han dynasty. This country, as being in the west
of the western sea [Persian Gulf], is also called Hai-hsi-kuo [i.e.
"western sea country"]. Its king resides at the city of
An-tu [Antioch]. In the palaces they use crystal in making pillars. From
T'iao-chih [Babylonia] west, crossing the sea, you make a crooked journey,
ten thousand li. Its distance from Ch'ang-an [Hsi-an-fu] is 40,000
li. This country is even and upright; human dwellings are scattered
over it like stars. Its territory amounts to a thousand li from
east to west and from north to south. It contains over 400 cities and
several tens of small tributary states. In the west there is the Great
Sea [the Mediterranean]. On the west of the sea there is the royal city
of Ali-san [Alexandria]. They have keepers of official records and foreigners
trained in reading their writings. They cut their hair and wear embroidered
clothing. They also have small carriages with white canopies, and hoist
flags, etc. Every ten li make one t'ing; thirty li
make one hou, the same as in Zhongguo [China]. The country contains
many lions who are a great scourge to travellers; for unless going in
caravans of over a hundred men and being protected by military equipment,
they will be hurt by them. Their king is not a permanent one, but they
want to be led by a man of merit. Whenever an extraordinary calamity or
an untimely storm and rain occurs, the king is deposed and a new one elected,
the deposed king resigning cheerfully. The inhabitants are tall, and upright
in their dealings, like the Han [Chinese], whence they are called Ta-ts'in,
or Han. Amongst precious stones they have the hsieh-chi-hsi [the chicken-frightening
rhinoceros stone]. They mix several fragrant substances and fry their
juice in order to make Su-ho [Storax]. The country produces gold,
silver, and rare precious things; the jewel that shines at night, the
moon-shine pearl, amber, opaque glass, tortoises, white horses, red bristles,
tortoise-shell, black bears, red glass, the p'i-tu-shu [a kind
of rat], large conches, ch'e-ch'u, carnelian. The Ts'ung
[a quadruped] comes from the western sea [Persian Gulf]; some are domesticated
like dogs, but they are mostly fierce and nasty. In the northern possessions
of this country there is a kind of sheep which grow naturally out of the
ground. They wait till the germs are about to sprout, and then protect
them by raising walls lest the beasts at large should eat them. Their
navels are connected with the ground; if the navel is cut by force, the
animal will die; but if by the sound of striking some object they are
frightened, this will cause them to disconnect their navels, and they
may be taken off the water-plants; they will not form flocks. There is
further the Mu-nan, a pearl of jade color, originating in the
coagulation of saliva in the mouth of a flying bird; the natives consider
it a precious substance. There are jugglers who can let fires burn on
their foreheads; make rivers and lakes in their hands; raise their feet
and let pearls and precious stones drop from them; and, in opening their
mouths produce banners and tufts of feathers in abundance. With regard
to the hsi-pu [fine cloth] manufactured on their looms, they
say they use the wool of water-sheep in making it; it is called hai-chung-pu.
They make all kinds of rugs; their colors are still more brilliant than
are those manufactured in the countries on the east of the sea. They always
made profit by obtaining the thick plain silk stuffs of Zhongguo, which
they split in order to make foreign ling kan wen [damask and
purple-dyed mustered goods], and they entertained a lively trade with
the foreign states of Ar-hsi [Arsacids, or Parthia] by sea. About 700
or 800 li south-west in the Chang-hai, you come to the Coral
Islands. At the bottom of the water there are rocks and the corals grow
on them. The inhabitants of Ta-tsin use large sea-going ships having on board
nets of iron. They get a diver first to go down and look for corals; if
the nets can be let down, they drop them. When the corals first appear
they are white, and by degrees they resemble sprouts, and break through.
After a year and some time has elapsed they grow through the meshes of
the net and change their color into yellow; they will then throw out branches
and intertwine, having grown to a height of three or four ch'ih
[four to five feet], and the larger ones measuring over a ch'ih
[15 inches] in circuit. After three years, their color has turned into
a beautiful carnation red. They are then again looked after to ascertain
whether they can be gathered. The fishers thereupon get at the roots with
iron pinchers and fasten the net with ropes; they let the men on board
turn the vessel round, raise the net and take it out, and return to their
country, where the corals are polished and cut according to fancy. If
not fished for at the proper time they are liable to be worm-bitten. In this country they make gold and silver coins; ten silver coins are
worth one gold coin. The inhabitants are just in their dealings, and in
the trade there are not two prices. Cereals are always cheap, and the
budget is well supplied. When the envoys of neighboring countries arrive
at their furthest frontier they are driven by post to the royal capital
and, on arrival, are presented with golden money. Their king always wished
to send envoys to Zhongguo; but the Ar-hsi wished to carry on trade with
them in Han silks, and this is the cause of their having been shut off
from direct communication. It was, further, hard to cross the great sea,
travelling merchants taking three years' provisions on board to make this
passage, whence the number of travellers was but small. In the beginning
of the Yuan-chia period of the emperor Huan-ti [151-153 C.E.], the king
of Ta-ts'in, An-tun [Marcus Aurelius Antoninus], sent envoys who offered
ivory, rhinoceros' horns, and tortoise-shell, from the boundary of Jih-nan
[Annam]; this was the first time they communicated with us. Their tribute
contained no precious stones whatever, which fact makes us suspect that
the messengers kept them back. During the Ta-k'ang period of the emperor
Wu-ti of the Chin dynasty [280-290 C.E.] their king sent envoys with tribute.
Some say that in the west of this country there is the Jo-shui [weak water]
and the Liu-sha [flying sands] near the residence of the Hsi-wang-mu [western
king's mother] not far from the place where the sun sets. The Wai-kuo-t'u ["map of foreign countries"] says:
From Yung-ch'en north there is a country called Ta-ts'in. These people
are of great size; they measure five or six ch'ih [six to seven feet]
in height. The Kuei-huan-hsing-ching-chi says: The Fu-lin country
is in the west of Shan [Armenia], separated by hills several thousand
li; it is also called Ta-ts'in. Its inhabitants have red and
white faces. Men wear plain clothes, but women wear silk stuffs beset
with pearls. They have many clever weavers of silk. Prisoners are kept
in the frontier states till death without their being brought back to
their home. In the manufacture of glass they are not equalled by any nation
of the world. The royal city is eighty li square; the country
in all directions measures several thousand li. Their army consists
of about a million men. They have constantly to provide against the Ta-shih.
On the west the country bounds on the western sea [the Mediterranean];
on the south, on the southern sea [Red Sea?]; in the north it connects
with K'o-sa T'u-ch'ueh [the Khazars]. In the western sea there is a market
where a silent agreement exists between buyer and seller that, if the
one is coming the other will go, and vice-versa; the seller will first
spread out his goods, and the purchaser will afterwards produce their
equivalents, which have to wait by the side of the articles to be sold
till received by the seller, after which the purchase may be taken delivery
of. They call this a spirit market. There is also a report that in the west there is the country of women
who, being affected by the influence of water, give birth to children.
It is further said: the country of Mo-lin [ 'Alwa, or Upper Nubia] is
on the south-west of the country of Yang-sa-lo [Jerusalem?]; crossing
the great desert 2,000 li you come to this country. Its inhabitants
are black and of ferocious manners. Cereals are scarce, and there is no
vegetation in the way of shrubs and trees; horses are fed on dried fish;
men eat hu-mang, that is, the Persian date. The country is very malarious.
The hill tribes which one has to pass in pursuing the overland road of
these countries, are of the same race. Of religions there are several
kinds: there is the Ta-shih, the Ta-ts'in, and the Hsun-hsun religion;
The Hsun-hsun have most frequent illicit intercourse with barbarians;
while eating they do not speak. Those who belong to the religion of Ta-shih
have a rule by which brothers, children and other relatives may be impeached
for crime without implicating their kin, even if the crime be brought
home to them. They do not eat the flesh of pigs, dogs, donkeys, and horses;
they do not prostrate or kneel down before the king, nor before father
or mother, to show their veneration; they do not believe in spirits, and
sacrifice to heaven alone. Every seventh day is a holiday, when they will
refrain from trade, and not go in or out, but drink wine and yield to
dissipation till the day is finished. The Ta-ts'in are good physicians
in eye-diseases and diarrhea, whether by looking to matters before the
disease has broken out [i.e., whether by the prophylactic method],
or whether by extracting worms from the brain [trepanning]. In the south-east of this country you go to Chiao-chih [Cochin China];
there is also a water-road communicating with the I-chou and Yung-ch'ang
principalities [both in the present Yunnan]. Many rare things come from
there. It is said that in the west of Ta-ts'in there is the water of a
sea; west of the seawater there is a river; the river flows south-west;
west of the river there are hills extending from south to north; west
of the hills there is the Red Water; west of this is the White Jade Hill;
west of the Jade Hill is the Hill of the Hsi-wang-mu [western king's mother]
who lives in a temple built of jadestone. Coming from the western boundary
of Ar-hsi [Parthia], following the crooked shape of the sea, you also
come to Ta-ts'in [at Aelana (modern Elat)], bending round over 10,000
li. Although in that country the sun, the moon, and the constellations
appear not different from what they are in Zhongguo, former historians
say that in the west of T'iao-chih [Babylonia] you go a hundred li
to the place where the sun sets; this is far from being true. In the 17th year of Cheng-kuan of the T'ang dynasty [643 C.E.] the king
of Fu-lin, Po-to-li [Constans II Pogonatus, Emperor 641-668 C.E.], sent
envoys offering red glass and green gold ching[stones, gems,
dust], and a cabinet order was issued as an acknowledgement. The Ta-shih
waged war against the country which in the sequel became subject to them.
Between the periods Ch'ien-feng and Ta-tsu [666-701 C.E.] they repeated
their court offerings. In the seventh year of K'ai-yuan [719 C.E.] they
offered through the ta-yu [a high official] of T'u-huo-lo [Khazarstan]
lions and ling-yang[antelopes]. The Dwarfs. These are in the south of Ta-ts'in. They are scarcely three
ch'ih [four feet] large. When they work in the fields they are
afraid of being devoured by cranes. Whenever Ta-ts'in has rendered them
any assistance, the Dwarfs give them all they can afford in the way of
precious stones to show their gratitude. The Hsuan-ch'u. Their country
contains many "birds of nine colors," with blue pecks, green
necks, red-brown wings, red breasts, purple crests, vermilion feet, jade-colored
bodies, yellowish backs, and blackish tails. Another name of this animal
is "bird of nine tails," or chin-feng [the brocaded
phoenix]. Those which have more blue than red on them are called Hsiu-luan
[embroidered argus pheasant]. These birds usually come from the west of
the Jo-shui [weak water]. Some say that it is the bird of the Hsi-wang-mu
[western king's mother]. The coins of the country are the same as those
of the country of San-t'ung. The San-t'ung are a thousand lisouth-west
of Hsuan-ch'u. The inhabitants have three eyes, and sometimes four tongues
by means of which they may produce one kind of sound and speak one language.
They trade in plantains, also in rhinoceros' horns and ivory; they make
golden coins on which they imitate the king's, also the queen's face [with
the king's together.]; if the husband is changed, they use the king's
face; if the king dies, they re-melt the coin. The above three countries
border on Ta-ts'in whence they are here appended. Ala-san [Charax Spasinu] was heard of during the Wei dynasty. It is subject
to Ta-ts'in. Its residence lies right in the middle of a river. North
you go to Lu-fen [Nikephorium] by water half a year, with quick winds
a month. It is nearest to Ch'eng-ku of Ar-hsi [Parthia]. South-west you
go to the capital of Ta-ts'in; we do not know how many li. Lu-fen
was heard of during the Wei dynasty. It is subject to Ta-ts'in. Its residence
is 2000 li distant from the capital of Ta-ts'in. The flying bridge
across the river [the bridge over the Euphrates at Zeugma] in Ta-ts'in
west of the city of Lu-fen is 240 li in length. The road, if
you cross the river, goes to the south-west; if you make a round on the
river, you go due west. Fu-lin. In the south and east of the country of Fu-lin you go to Mei-lu-ku
[Kilikia ("Cilicia")]; north you go to the sea, forty days'
journey; west you go to the sea, thirty days' journey. In the east, starting
from western Ta-shih you come to Yu-tien [Khoten], Hui-ho, Ta-ta [Tartary],
and Ch'ing-t'ang, and finally reach Zhongguo [China]. They have during
former dynasties not sent tribute to our court. During the tenth month
of the fourth year of the period Yuan-feng [November 1081 C.E.] their
king Mieh-li-i-ling-kai-sa [Michael Caesar] first sent the ta-shou-ling
[a high official] Ni-si-tu-ling-si-meng-p'an to offer as tribute saddled
horses, sword-blades and real pearls. He said: the climate of this country
is very cold; houses there have no tiles; the products are gold, silver,
pearls, western silk cloth, cows, sheep, horses, camels with single humps,
pears, almonds, dates, pa-lan, millet, and wheat. They make wine
from grapes. Their musical instruments are the lute, the hu-ch'in,
the hsiao-pi-li, and the p'ien-ku. The king dresses
in red and yellow robes, and wears a turban of silken cloth interwoven
with gold thread. In the third month every year he goes to the Temple
of Fou, to sit on a red palanquin which he gets the people to lift. His
honored servants [ministers, courtiers, priests?] are dressed like the
king, but wear blue, green, purple, white mottled, red, yellow, or brown
stuff; wear turbans and ride on horseback. The towns and the country districts
are each under the jurisdiction of a shou-ling [chief, sheik?].
Twice a year during the summer and autumn they must offer money and cloth.
In their criminal decisions they distinguish between great and small offences.
Light offences are punished by several hundreds' of blows with the bamboo;
heavy offences with up to 200 blows; capital punishment is administered
by putting the culprit into a feather bag which is thrown into the sea.
They are not bent on making war to neighboring countries, and in the case
of small difficulties try to settle matters by correspondence; but when
important interests are at stake they will also send out an army. They
cast gold and silver coins, without holes, however; on the pile they cut
the words Mi-le-fou which is a king's name; the people are forbidden
to counterfeit the coin. During the sixth year of Yuan-yu [1091 C.E.] they sent two embassies,
and their king was presented, by Imperial order, with 200 pieces of cloth,
pairs of silver vases, and clothing with gold bound in a girdle. According
to the historians of the T'ang dynasty, the country of Fu-lin was held
to be identical with the ancient Ta-ts'in. It should be remarked, however,
that, although Ta-ts'in has from the Later Han dynasty when Zhongguo was
first communicated with, till down to the Chin and T'ang dynasties has
offered tribute without interruption, yet the historians of the "four
reigns" of the Sung dynasty, in their notices of Fu-lin, hold that
this country has not sent tribute to court up to the time of Yuan-feng
[1078-1086 C.E.] when they sent their first embassy offering local produce.
If we, now, hold together the two accounts of Fu-lin as transmitted by
the two different historians, we find that, in the account of the T'ang
dynasty, this country is said "to border on the great sea in the
west"; whereas the Sung account says that "in the west you have
still thirty days' journey to the sea;" and the remaining boundaries
do also not tally in the two accounts; nor do the products and the customs
of the people. I suspect that we have before us merely an accidental similarity
of the name, and that the country is indeed not identical with Ta-ts'in.
I have, for this reason, appended the Fu-lin account of the T'ang dynasty
to my chapter on Ta-ts'in, and represented this Fu-lin of the Sung dynasty
as a separate country altogether. Chao Ju-kua, Chu-fan-chih (written late 13th Century
C.E.): The country of Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria], also called Li-kan [Syria], is
the general meeting-ground for the nations of the western heaven, and
the place where the foreign merchants of Ta-shih [the Arabs of the Caliphate]
assemble. Their king is styled Mie-lu-ku. He rules at the city
of An-tu [Antioch]. He wears a turban of silk with gold-embroidered characters,
and the throne he sits upon is covered with a silken rug. They have walled
cities and markets with streets and lanes. In the king's dwelling they
use crystal in making pillars; and they use plaster in lieu of tiles.
They frequently erect tabernacles with seven entrances all round, each
holding a garrison of thirty men. Tribute-bearers from other countries
pay their respects below the platform of the palace steps, whence they
withdraw on having offered their congratulations. The inhabitants are
tall and of bright complexion, somewhat like the Han [Chinese], which
has been the cause of their being called Ta-ts'in. They have keepers of
official records and foreign interpreters knowing their style of writing.
They trim their hair and wear embroidered dresses. They also have small
carriages with white canopies, and flags, etc.; and at the distance of
every ten li there is a t'ing, and at the distance of
every thirty li there is a hou. There are in the country
many lions who will attack travellers and may devour them unless they
go in caravans of a hundred men and be protected by military equipment.
Underneath the palace they have cut into the ground a tunnel communicating
with the hall of worship at a distance of over a li. The king
rarely goes out; but, to chant the liturgy and worship, on every seventh
day he proceeds by way of this tunnel to the hall of worship where, in
performing divine service, he is attended by a suite of over fifty men.
But few amongst the people know the king's face; if he goes out he sits
on horseback, protected by an umbrella; the head of his horse is adorned
with gold, jade, pearls and other jewels. Every year the king of the country
of Ta-shih who is styled Su-tan [Sultan] sends tribute-bearers,
and if in the country some trouble is apprehended, he gets the Ta-shih
to use their military force in restoring order. Their food mainly consists
in cooked dishes, cakes and meat; they do not drink wine; but they use
vessels made of gold and silver, and help themselves to their contents
by means of ladles; after meals they wash hands in a golden bowl filled
with water. The products of the country consist in opaque glass, corals,
raw gold, brocades, sarcenets, red carnelian stones and real pearls; also
the hsieh-chi-hsi, which is the same as the T'ung-t'ien-hsi.
At the beginning of the Yen-hsi period [158-167 C.E.] the ruler of this
country sent an embassy who, from outside the frontier of Jih-nan [Annam],
came to offer rhinoceros' horns, ivory and tortoise-shell, this being
the first direct communication with Zhongguo. As their presents contained
no other precious matters and curiosities, it may be suspected that the
ambassadors kept them back. During the T'ai-k'ang period of the Chin dynasty
[280-289 C.E.] further tribute was brought from there [at the time of
Diocletian]. There is a saying that in the west of this country there
is the Jo-shui [weak water] and the Liu-sha [flying sands] near the place
where the Hsi-wang-mu [western king's mother] resides, and where the sun
sets. The Tu-huan-ching-hsing-chi says: The country of Fu-lin is in
the west of the Shan [Armenia] country; it is also called Ta-ts'in. The
inhabitants have red and white faces. Men wear plain clothes, but women
wear silk stuffs beset with pearls. They are fond of wine and dry cakes.
They have many clever weavers of silk. The size of the country is a thousand
li. Their army consists of over 10,000 men and has to ward off
the Ta-shih. In the western sea there is a market where a silent agreement
exists between buyer and seller that, if the one is coming the other will
go, and vice-versa, the seller will first spread out his goods, and the
purchaser will afterwards produce their equivalents, which have to wait
by the side of the articles to be sold till received by the seller, after
which the purchase may be taken delivery of. They call this a spirit market.
From the Ming-shih, ch. 326 (concluded 1724 C.E.),
for 1368-1643 C.E.: u-lin [Byzantium] is the same as Ta-ts'in [Roman Syria] of the Han period.
It first communicated with Zhongguo [China] at the time of the emperor
Huan-ti [147-168 C.E.]. During the Chin and Wei dynasties it was also
called Ta-ts'in, and tribute was sent to Zhongguo. During the T'ang dynasty
it was called Fu-lin. During the Sung it was still so called, and they
sent also tribute several times; yet the Sung-shih says that during former
dynasties they have sent no tribute to our court, which throws doubt on
its identity with Ta-ts'in. At the close of the Yuan dynasty [1278-1368
C.E.] a native of this country, named Nieh-ku-lun, came to Zhongguo for
trading purposes [Pope John XXII appointed Nicolaus de Bentra to succeed
John de Monte Corvino as Archbishop of Cambalu, that is, Peking, in the
year 1333; and also sent letters to the emperor of the Tartars, who was
then the sovereign of China." Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History,trans.
James Murdock, Vol. II, p. 359; cf. Remusat, Nouv. Mel. Asiat., Vol. II,
p. 198. Bretschneider, Arabs, etc., p. 25, says: "It is possible
that the Nie-ku-lun of the Chinese Annals is identical with the Monk Nicolas.
The statement of the Chinese that Nicolas carried on commerce does not
contradict this view. Perhaps he trafficked in fact, or he considered
it necessary to introduce himself under the name of a merchant."].
When, after the fall of the Yuan, he was not able to return, the emperor
T'ai-tsu, who had heard of this, commanded him to his presence in the
eighth month of the fourth year of Hung-wu [September 1371 C.E.]
and gave orders that an official letter be placed into his hands for transmission
to his king, which read as follows: "Since the Sung dynasty had lost
the throne and Heaven had cut off their sacrifice, the Yuan [Mongol]
dynasty had risen from the desert to enter and rule over Zhongguo for
more than a hundred years, when Heaven, wearied of their misgovernment
and debauchery, thought also fit to turn their fate to ruin, and the affairs
of Zhongguo were in a state of disorder for eighteen years. But when the
nation began to arouse itself, We, as a simple peasant of Huai-yu, conceived
the patriotic idea to save the people, and it pleased the Creator to grant
that Our civil and military officers effected their passage across eastward
to the left side of the River. We have then been engaged in war for fourteen
years; We have, in the west, subdued the king of Han, Ch'en Yu-liang;
We have, in the east, bound the king of Wu, Chang Shih-ch'eng; We have,
in the south, subdued Min and Yueh [Fukien and Kuang-tung], and conquered
Pa and Shu [Sze-chuan]; We have, in the north, established order in Yu
and Yen [Chih-li]; We have established peace in the Empire, and restored
the old boundaries of Zhongguo. We were selected by Our people to occupy
the Imperial throne of Zhongguo under the dynastic title of 'the Great
Ming,' commencing with Our reign styled Hung-wu, of which we now are in
the fourth year. We have sent officers to all the foreign kingdoms with
this Manifesto except to you, Fu-lin, who, being separated from us by
the western sea, have not as yet received the announcement. We now send
a native of your country, Nieh-ku-lun, to hand you this Manifesto. Although
We are not equal in wisdom to our ancient rulers whose virtue was recognized
all over the universe, We cannot but let the world know Our intention
to maintain peace within the four seas. It is on this ground alone that
We have issued this Manifesto." And he again ordered the ambassador
Pu-la and others to be provided with credentials and presents of silk
for transmission to that country, who thereafter sent an embassy with
tribute. But this embassy was, in the sequel, not repeated until during
the Wan-li period [1573-1620 C.E.] a native from the great western ocean
[Fra. Matteo Ricci--mentioned in a subsequent account of Italy as the
foreigner who arrived] came to the capital who said that the Lord of Heaven,
Ye-su, was born in Ju-te-a [Judea] which is identical with the old country
of Ta-ts'in; that this country is known in the historical books to have
existed since the creation of the world for the last 6,000 years; that
it is beyond dispute the sacred ground of history and the origin of all
wordly affairs; that it should be considered as the country where the
Lord of Heaven created the human race. This account looks somewhat exaggerated
and should not be trusted. As regards the abundance of produce and other
precious articles found in this country, accounts will be found in former
annals. Source From: F. Hirth, China and the Roman Orient: Researches
into their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as Represented in Old Chinese
Records (Shanghai & Hong Kong, 1885), pp. 35-96. Scanned and edited by Dr. Jerome S. Arkenberg, Department
of History, California State University Fullerton. The text has been modified
by Dr. Arkenberg. [Any modernization © 2000 Jerome S. Arkenberg.] |