Burundi

In the early 14th century, the Hutu arrived, probably from the Congo River basin, and imposed their language and customs on the Twa, who are believed to be Burundi's original inhabitants. The development of an organized kingdom began in the 15th century, when the Tutsi, probably migrating from the north, established themselves as feudal rulers. Tutsi kings, or mwamis, became monarchs of distinct kingdoms in Burundi and Rwanda. Their rule was enforced by chiefs and subchiefs, who each ruled an umusozi, a fiefdom consisting of a single hill. Political and economic relations were based on an unequal feudal relationship, known as the ubugabire system, in which most Hutu became serfs subjugated by and economically dependent on the Tutsi. However, Burundi's economic and sociopolitical structures were not as rigid as those of Rwanda. The power of the mwami was not absolute, and various princely leaders, known as ganwa, often vied for the throne. Unlike in Rwanda, marriages between Hutu and Tutsi were common in Burundi. European Colonization In 1858 the British explorers Sir Richard Burton and John Hanning Speke were the first Europeans to visit Burundi. Austrian explorer Oskar Baumann and German Count Gustav Adolf von Götzen arrived in the 1890s, and soon Roman Catholic clergy established missions in the area. Later Burundi (then called Urundi) and Rwanda (then called Ruanda) were incorporated into German East Africa. The indigenous Tutsi rulers maintained good relations with the Germans and later with the Belgians, who occupied the country during World War I (1914-1918). After the war, the area was mandated to Belgium by the League of Nations and became known as the Territory of Ruanda-Urundi. Following World War II (1939-1945), it became a United Nations (UN) trust territory. The Belgians continued previous policies of supporting mission education and ruling through Tutsi chiefs. The colonial authorities strengthened precolonial inequalities and were late in seeking reforms. Nevertheless, the Belgians encouraged the mwami to phase out the ubugabire system in 1955. Independence and Violence As African political consciousness increased, the Hutu grew more vocal in protesting inequalities. In 1959 ethnic antagonisms in Rwanda erupted into violence. The Rwandan Tutsi king fled the country, and an exodus of some 200,000 Tutsi followed, many of whom went to Burundi. At the insistence of the UN Trusteeship Council, Burundi became an independent constitutional monarchy under Mwami Mwambutsa IV on July 1, 1962, and was admitted to the UN in September. However, political rivalry between Hutu and Tutsi threatened regional stability. Fearing a Hutu revolution similar to Rwanda's, the Burundian Tutsi reacted brutally. In 1963 thousands of Hutu victimized in Burundi took refuge in Rwanda. The Burundian power structure remained in Tutsi hands, despite a Hutu majority in the legislature after 1965. Accusing Mwambutsa of intriguing to strengthen his position, a group of Hutu police attempted a coup in October 1965. Loyalist police led by Captain Michel Micombero, a Tutsi, thwarted the rebels, but the mwami fled the country. In July 1966 he was declared deposed by his son, Mwami Ntare V. Four months later Micombero led a successful coup, declared Burundi a republic, appointed himself president, and established a National Revolutionary Committee to help stabilize his regime and develop the economy. In April 1972 a Hutu uprising led to widespread massacres claiming at least 100,000 lives, mainly Hutu. Ntare, who was under house arrest, was also killed. The uprising was quelled, but unrest continued, and thousands of Hutu refugees found haven in nearby countries. Micombero was ousted in a bloodless coup in November 1976. The ruling Supreme Revolutionary Council subsequently named Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza as president, but peace between the ruling Tutsi and the Hutu majority remained precarious. A new constitution in 1981 declared Burundi a one-party state. Coming into conflict with the Roman Catholic church, Bagaza became more authoritarian, persecuting clergy and forbidding masses. This policy led to an erosion of support, and in 1987, while on a foreign visit, he was overthrown by Major Pierre Buyoya, who ruled as head of the Military Committee for National Salvation. Suspending the constitution, freeing political prisoners, lifting restrictions on churches, and touring the country in an effort to unite the people, he quickly consolidated his power and dealt with political tensions. Stability was threatened again in 1988 when the Tutsi-led army engaged in massacres of Hutu that left at least 5000 dead. Buyoya responded by appointing a Hutu prime minister and including Hutu in the cabinet. He controlled the military and planned a return to democratic, civilian rule. A new constitution providing for a multiparty system was ratified by referendum in March 1992. An unsuccessful coup attempt the same month reportedly was organized by Bagaza, in exile in Libya. Further Instability In June 1993 Burundi held its first democratic presidential elections since independence. Melchior Ndadaye, a Hutu and a member of the Burundi Democracy Front, won the elections with 60 percent of the vote. Buyoya stepped down peacefully, retired from the army, and remained politically active. In October 1993 army factions loyal to Bagaza assassinated Ndadaye and instability in neighboring Rwanda spread to Burundi. Ndadaye's death provoked waves of ethnic violence that sent thousands of refugees fleeing into neighboring Rwanda. Cyprien Ntaryamira, a Hutu who replaced Ndadaye, attempted to restore order by reining in the Tutsi-dominated security forces implicated in the violence. On April 6, 1994, shortly after concluding talks, Ntaryamira and Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana were killed in a suspicious plane crash near Kigali, Rwanda. Sylvestre Ntibantunganya, former head of the National Assembly, was named acting president and was formally elected in September 1994. However, Burundi was locked in a stalemate between the elected, Hutu-dominated government and the Tutsi-led army. The situation continued to deteriorate, exacerbated by the influx of thousands of refugees from Rwanda. Many government functions ceased. On July 25, 1996, Pierre Buyoya seized power in another military coup, claiming that extraordinary measures were necessary to ensure national survival. In spite of his efforts to stabilize the country and his repeatedly declared intentions of restoring democracy in the future, Buyoya has been criticized for acting unconstitutionally. In September 1996 Roman Catholic archbishop Joachim Ruhuna, a Tutsi, was killed in an ambush by Hutu rebels. In response, Buyoya permitted political party and parliamentary activity, though the constitution still remained suspended in early 1997. Since 1993 ethnic violence has claimed more than 150,000 lives and has led to the displacement of some 700,000 people.