Czech Republic

The region that became the Czech Republic was inhabited by Celtic and Germanic tribes before Slavic tribes from eastern Europe arrived in the 5th century AD. Soon after their arrival, the Slavic tribes were conquered by a Mongolian people known as the Avars. In about 623 a Frankish merchant named Samo organized the Slavic tribes into a kingdom and led this kingdom to defeat the Avars. Samo ruled over this Slavic kingdom, centered in Bohemia, until his death in 658. In Moravia, Slavic tribes helped the Frankish king, Charlemagne, destroy the Avar empire in the late 700s and were rewarded by receiving part of it as a fief. In the early part of the next century, a Slavic chief named Mojmír I expanded this Slavic state to include Bohemia, Slovakia, southern Poland, and parts of western Hungary. The expanded state came to be known as the Empire of Great Moravia. In 907 Magyar tribes from Hungary conquered the region, the empire disintegrated, and Slovakia came under Hungarian rule. The Rise of Bohemia In the 10th century the Premyslids-a dynasty of the legendary Cechove, or Ceši, tribe, from which the Czechs derived their name-unified neighboring Czech tribes and established a form of centralized rule in Bohemia. Under the Premyslids, Bohemia expanded its territory and came under the protection of the German-based Holy Roman Empire. In 1212 Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II made Bohemia a largely independent kingdom within the empire. During the 1200s, many German craftsworkers and merchants settled in Bohemia, contributing to the growing prosperity of the region. In 1335 Bohemia was expanded to include a large part of Silesia. Bohemia achieved great political and cultural prominence under King Charles IV (also called Charles of Luxemburg), who reigned from 1347 to 1378. Under Charles, who was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1355, Prague grew into a major European center of learning and culture. Extensive building projects were undertaken, the most significant of which was the founding of Charles University in 1348, the first university in central Europe. In the late 14th and early 15th centuries an important church-reform movement took place in the Czech lands. Based on the teachings of the Bohemian religious reformer John Huss (also spelled Jan Hus), the Hussite movement attacked the authority and corruption of the Roman Catholic church (see Hussites; Hussite Wars). Hus was tried for heresy, and burned at the stake in 1415. His death triggered a series of religious wars in Bohemia, which ended in 1446 with a compromise. In 1458 Jirí of Podebrady, a Protestant, was elected king of Bohemia by supporters of Jan Hus. Jirí was the first Protestant to be elected king in all of Europe. In the late 1400s, most of the Czech nobility converted to Protestantism. Habsburg Rule In the 15th century, Bohemia was ruled by a Polish prince, Vladislav II, who was also the king of Hungary. In 1526 the death of Vladislav II's heir left the crowns of both Hungary and Bohemia vacant, and Ferdinand I, a member of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty, became king of Hungary and Bohemia. Much of the next century was characterized by conflict between the Czech nobility and the Habsburg monarchy. In 1618 a revolt by the Czech Protestant nobility began the Thirty Years' War. In 1620 the Bohemian army was defeated at the Battle of the White Mountain and many Czech nobles and cultural leaders were killed or forced into exile. Those who remained in the Czech lands were forced to convert to Catholicism and to give up their own language and culture in favor of German. German culture was dominant in the Czech lands for the next 150 years. In the late 1700s industries began to develop in Bohemia and Moravia and many Czech peasants began moving to urban areas, which at that time were populated almost entirely by Germans. At the same time, Czech writers, journalists, and intellectuals began working to create greater national consciousness among the Czechs. By the second half of the 19th century, a mass movement calling for Czech self-government had developed in the Czech lands. Habsburg rule continued, however. In 1867 the Habsburg domains in central Europe were reconstituted as the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The Republic of Czechoslovakia During World War I (1914-1918) Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and other Czech leaders began to advocate the idea of an independent state for Czechs and Slovaks, and worked to increase support for their cause among Czechs and Slovaks living abroad. In 1918 the war ended, the empire of Austria-Hungary collapsed, and the independent state of Czechoslovakia was created, bringing Czechs and Slovaks together in a common state for the first time in modern history. The new republic included Bohemia and Moravia, part of Silesia, and Slovakia; the eastern region of Ruthenia became part of Czechoslovakia the following year. The constitution of Czechoslovakia established a democratic republic committed to the protection of civil rights for all citizens. Masaryk served as president of the republic from its founding until 1935, when he was succeeded by Eduard Beneš. During the 1920s and early 1930s Czechoslovakia was remarkably stable. The country had inherited a wealth of economic resources from the Habsburg monarchy, including a strong industrial base, and this period was one of considerable economic prosperity. The chief domestic problem facing the new leaders of Czechoslovakia was a growing disaffection among the country's large national minorities, the Slovaks and the Sudeten Germans. Despite their similar heritage, Czechs and Slovaks differed in a number of important ways. The Czech lands were highly developed economically with a social structure similar to that of other developed European nations, while Slovakia was largely agrarian; the Czech leadership rejected the authority of the clergy, while the majority of Slovaks were practicing Catholics; and the Czech people had generally more education and experience with self-government than the Slovaks. Although attempts were made to industrialize Slovakia, these efforts were largely unsuccessful, due in part to the Great Depression, the worldwide economic slump of the 1930s. Poverty, unemployment, and frustration over the predominant role played by Czechs in the country's political and economic life led many Slovaks to emigrate from Czechoslovakia or join nationalist Slovak movements. Resentment was even stronger among the country's German population, most of whom lived in the Sudetenland on Czechoslovakia's western border. Unhappy with their loss of status following the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the impact of Czechoslovak laws on their economic situation, many Sudeten Germans came to support extreme nationalist parties and the policies of Nazi Germany (see National Socialism). The Nazi Invasion In 1938 German dictator Adolf Hitler used the demands of the Sudeten Germans to force the government of Czechoslovakia to give the Sudetenland to Germany. Czechoslovak leaders relied on their French and British allies to resist Hitler's pressure. However, at the Munich Conference of 1938, the French and British decided to appease Hitler (see Munich Pact). Faced with desertion by his allies, President Beneš agreed to German demands. Later that year, Hungary and Poland claimed other parts of Czechoslovakia. Faced with the threat of being divided by Germany, Poland, and Hungary, Slovak leaders decided to withdraw from the republic and declare independence. The Slovak state created in March 1939 copied the policies of Germany and had little real independence. Meanwhile, German forces invaded and occupied Bohemia and Moravia, claiming the entire region as a protectorate. World War II broke out several months later. In July 1940 Beneš, who had resigned as president in 1938, established a government in exile in London. Although the Czech people suffered greatly under German occupation, loss of life among Czechs during World War II was relatively minor compared to that of other nations. The Jewish population of the Czech lands was virtually annihilated, however. More than 70,000 Czech Jews were killed by the Nazis between 1939 and 1945. In May 1945 troops from the USSR liberated most of Czechoslovakia. The part of Bohemia containing the city of Plzeñ was liberated by American forces. Beneš and the other members of the government in exile returned and the republic of Czechoslovakia was resurrected, with the exception of Ruthenia, which was taken over by the USSR. From 1945 until February 1948, Czechoslovakia enjoyed a form of limited political pluralism. While leaders of the Communist Party held many important government positions, other political parties were also represented. During this period, the government nationalized a number of major industries and expelled large numbers of Germans and Hungarians from their homes. Communist Czechoslovakia In the 1946 elections, the Communist Party won 38 percent of the vote, a higher percentage than any other party. In February 1948 the Communists provoked a crisis that led to the resignation of non-Communist government ministers and the formation of a new Communist-dominated government. President Beneš resigned soon afterward, and was replaced by Communist Party leader Klement Gottwald. Once in power, Czechoslovakia's Communist leaders attempted to copy the Soviet model of political organization and economic development. Other political parties were outlawed or subordinated to the Communist Party, which became the only effective political force in the country. The secret police became increasingly powerful. Economic decision-making was centralized, and almost all economic assets became state property. Farmers were forced to enter collective farms. And government censorship of the press and various forms of artistic expression became widespread. The early 1950s was a period of harsh repression in Czechoslovakia. Many top political leaders were imprisoned or executed for having opinions that the government considered disloyal. In 1953 Gottwald died and was replaced by Antonin Zápotocký, who permitted a moderate liberalization of conditions. However, when Antonin Novotný assumed the presidency in 1957, strict governmental control was reimposed. The Prague Spring During the 1960s the country experienced a decline in economic performance. In 1968 a Slovak named Alexander Dubcek became the head of the Communist Party. Dubcek introduced a program of liberal reforms known as the "Prague Spring" or "Socialism with a Human Face" in an attempt to find a form of socialism better suited to Czechoslovakia. The press was given greater freedom, citizens were granted opportunities to participate in politics, and steps were taken to decentralize the economy. However, the USSR feared that the reforms would weaken Communist control in Czechoslovakia, and on August 21 of that year, the Soviet army, assisted by troops from other Warsaw Pact nations, invaded Czechoslovakia and halted the liberalization process. In April 1969 Gústav Húsak replaced Dubcek as head of the Communist Party. Many intellectuals and party leaders who had supported liberalization lost their positions as well. Húsak reestablished tight party control and censorship of the press, and the Communist Party came to dominate political life once again. During the 1970s the Communist leadership of Czechoslovakia attempted to gain popular support and preserve political stability by raising the standard of living. They also used force and coercion against people who opposed the regime. In these conditions, most people withdrew from public life. However, a small but important group of dissidents (political protesters) openly opposed the regime. Charter 77 and the Committee to Defend the Unjustly Persecuted (known by its Czech acronym, VONS), became the most important dissident organizations. The End of Communist Rule  In the late 1980s the dissident movement in Czechoslovakia grew, encouraged by the reforms that were taking place in the USSR under Mikhail Gorbachev. In late 1989 Czechs joined with Slovaks in mass demonstrations against the Communist government. Less than one month later, the government resigned and non-Communists took control of the country. A new movement called Civic Forum was formed to represent democratic forces in the Czech lands, and a similar movement called Public against Violence (PAV) developed in Slovakia. In December the parliament elected Václav Havel, a dissident and non-Communist, to be the country's new president. The transition to non-Communist rule in Czechoslovakia occurred so smoothly and peacefully that it came to be known as the Velvet Revolution. In June 1990 the first free elections since 1946 were held in Czechoslovakia. The majority of seats in parliament were won by Havel's Civic Forum in the Czech Republic and by the PAV, led by Vladimír Meciar, in Slovakia. The parliament reelected Havel as president in July, and Havel asked Marian Calfa, a former Communist, to head the government as prime minister. The country's new leaders took office and began the process of reinstituting democratic institutions in Czechoslovakia. Freedom of the press and other political freedoms were restored; and laws were passed to remove the legacy of Communism from the legal system. The government also took steps to reintroduce a market economy in Czechoslovakia. In the early 1990s a mass privatization program went into effect with the goal of shifting large numbers of state-owned companies into private hands. This was achieved mainly through a voucher privatization plan, which allowed citizens to purchase low-cost vouchers that they could later trade for shares of stock in companies. Nearly all eligible citizens participated in this plan. The country's new leaders also reoriented Czechoslovakia's foreign policy. They established good relations with the United States and Czechoslovakia's Western European neighbors and indicated their interest in joining international organizations such as the European Community (now the European Union or EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The Breakup of Czechoslovakia However, as these and other reforms got underway, tensions developed between Czech and Slovak leaders. In part, these tensions reflected the different histories of the two regions; but they also reflected the fact that economic reform was producing greater hardship in Slovakia than it was in the more economically developed Czech lands. Because of their economic differences, Czechs and Slovaks held conflicting views about the appropriate pace and nature of economic reform. They also disagreed about how power should be divided between the federal and republican governments. These differences complicated the reform process and prevented the adoption of a new constitution. Disagreements between the two republics came to a head in the June 1992 parliamentary elections. The right-of-center Civic Democratic Party, led by Václav Klaus, won the elections in the Czech lands, while Vladimír Meciar's left-of-center Movement for a Democratic Slovakia won the largest share of the votes in Slovakia. Disagreements between the republics intensified, and in July Slovakia declared its sovereignty. Havel resigned as president of the Czechoslovak federation after this step. Throughout the fall of 1992 Czech and Slovak leaders negotiated the details for disbanding the federation. In November the federal parliament voted to dissolve the country officially on December 31, despite polls indicating that a majority of citizens opposed the break up. In January 1993 the Czechoslovak federation was replaced by two new independent states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. By the end of the year, the two countries had reached agreement on the division of 95 percent of federal property, and had established close links, especially in the area of trade. The Czech Republic after Independence Václav Havel was elected president of the new Czech Republic in February 1993. Václav Klaus, who had become the Czech prime minister in June 1992, continued to head the government. Under Klaus's leadership, the government introduced another wave of voucher privatization in the fall of 1993. By the end of 1994, an estimated 70 percent of industry had been privatized. Though the economy had declined somewhat following the collapse of Communism, it began to recover in the mid-1990s. The inflation level dropped, unemployment remained low, and the country attracted sizable amounts of foreign investment. Following its creation in 1993, the Czech Republic experienced remarkable political stability. Support for Klaus and his government remained high, and there was little popular support for extremist groups on either end of the political spectrum. After a great deal of debate, the government voted in April 1994 to return property to the families of Czech Jews who were dispossessed by the Nazi regime during World War II. In recent years, debates have also arisen concerning treatment of the country's large Roma minority. A significant proportion of the Roma population has been excluded from Czech citizenship due to stiff requirements. Some citizens and human rights advocates have expressed concern that the country's citizenship law effectively discriminates against this already disadvantaged group. In foreign affairs, the Czech government maintained good relations with neighboring central European countries, and continued to emphasize the importance of close ties with Western Europe. Czech leaders continued to press for full integration into international organizations, including the EU and NATO. In June 1996 the Czech Republic held its first parliamentary elections since the country split from Slovakia in 1993. Prime Minister Klaus's center-right coalition lost its majority in the Chamber of Deputies (lower house of parliament) by a narrow margin, and the center-left Czech Social Democratic Party, the political opponent of Klaus's Civic Democratic Party, greatly increased its representation. The election results surprised many observers, as the Czech Republic had been consistently viewed as the most politically stable of the former Communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe; the results were widely believed to reflect Czech voters' dissatisfaction with some of the policies of Klaus's government, including its reform of the social welfare system. Following the elections, Klaus signed a coalition agreement to form a minority government and was reappointed prime minister. In November elections were held for the Senate, or upper house of parliament, and center-right parties of the ruling coalition won the majority of seats. The elections were the first ever for the 81-member Senate, which came into existence in September 1995 by a vote in the Chamber of Deputies. Although the constitution that took effect in 1993 had provided for the creation of the Senate, disagreements within the Chamber of Deputies had hitherto prevented its establishment. In January 1997, after nearly two years of negotiations, Germany and the Czech Republic signed a joint agreement in which both countries acknowledged misdeeds conducted against one another during and directly after World War II. The German government apologized for Nazi Germany's dismemberment and subsequent occupation of Czechoslovakia, which began in 1938. The Czech government apologized for Czechoslovakia's forced expulsion of nearly three million Sudeten Germans from Czechoslovakia in 1945 and 1946. The agreement also provided for the creation of a $105 million fund to support projects that further German-Czech relations. However, the agreement did not address the issue of whether Sudeten Germans are entitled to pursue compensation claims for land and property confiscated by the Czechoslovak government. Leaders of both countries decided to put aside the volatile issue after it threatened to derail the negotiations.