Laos

The first identifiable inhabitants of what is now Laos were an Australasiatic people, who as early as the 5th century AD were living in the country under the suzerainty of the state of Funan. They subsequently came under the domination of the Kingdom of Chenla, an early Khmer kingdom, and its successor state, centered at Ângkôr. In the meantime, the Lao and other Tai peoples had been gradually penetrating south from Nanchao (in present-day Yunnan, China). By the 12th century they had apparently established their own principalities, although much of this period remains shrouded in legend. The Lao migration received its final impetus from the Mongol destruction of Nanchao in the 13th and 14th centuries. Kingdom of the Million Elephants In the mid-14th century the Khmer king at Ângkôr, Jayavarman Paramesvara, married his daughter to a Lao prince, Fa Ngum, and helped him found the independent kingdom of Làng Xâng ("Million Elephants"), with its capital at Muong Swa (present-day Louangphrabang). A great warrior, who earned the title Conqueror, he united the Lao principalities and was frequently at war with both the Kingdom of Ayutthaya and Annam. Largely by the efforts of his Khmer queen, the Lao during his reign adopted Theravada Buddhism. Fa Ngum was deposed and succeeded by his son in 1373, who further consolidated and organized the kingdom. In the second half of the 15th century, hostilities with Annam resulted in the fall of the capital, but the Annamese were soon driven back, and a long period of peace followed. Làng Xâng's maximum extension came in the 16th century, when the Laotian king claimed and won the crown of neighboring Chiang Mai. This, however, marked the beginning of a long struggle with the Burmans, during which the capital was moved to Vientiane. The Burmans ravaged the country in 1574, and after a period of anarchy Souligna-Vongsa acceded to the throne in 1637. He concluded peace with his neighbors to the east and west, and his subsequent rule is considered a golden age in Laotian history. In 1700, after Souligna-Vongsa's death, an exiled nephew of his brought in a Vietnamese force to help him seize the throne. His relatives, however, would not tolerate Vietnamese rule, and they established a separate kingdom at Louangphrabang in 1707. That was the end of Làng Xâng; by 1713 Laos was split into the three states of Louangphrabang, Vientiane, and Champasak. French Rule Hostilities between Siam (Thailand) and Vientiane led to the conquering of the latter in 1778, and at the same time Louangphrabang and Champasak were forced to acknowledge Siamese suzerainty. When Vientiane tried to assert its independence in 1827, Siamese forces completely destroyed it. During the second half of the 19th century the French began to make their presence felt. A French military expedition in 1893 occupied the most important towns of the country and forced the Siamese to recognize the protectorate that France had established over Laotian territory east of the Mekong River. In 1904 France obtained whatever Laotian territory had remained under Siamese control. The French ruled indirectly through the king of Louangphrabang and a hierarchy of royal officials, although the French resident supervisor always had the final word. During World War II (1939-1945) the Japanese occupied Indochina. When they withdrew, an independence movement known as the Lao Issarak ("Free Laos") formed a nationalist government, which collapsed when the French reoccupied the region in 1946. The French then signed an agreement with the king of Louangphrabang that established him as king of a unified Laos within the French Union. A constitution providing for an elected legislature was promulgated on May 11, 1947. In 1949 Laos became an independent state within the French Union, and most of the nationalist leaders, who had fled at the time of the French reoccupation, returned to the country. A few dissidents under the leadership of Prince Souphanouvong, however, allied themselves with the pro-Communist Viet Minh forces fighting the French in Vietnam. These Laotians, called the Pathet Lao ("Lao State"), joined with the Viet Minh forces to invade Laos in April 1953 and quickly gained control of large areas. Later that year the French agreed to give Laos full independence. The Geneva Accords By terms of the Geneva Accords that ended the Indochinese war in 1954, all Viet Minh troops and all but 5000 French soldiers were to be withdrawn from Laos, and the Pathet Lao was to withdraw into two northern provinces of the country. An international supervisory commission was set up to supervise the truce. In December 1955 Laos was admitted to the United Nations (UN). With the decline of French influence in the region, the effect of United States power began to be felt. In November 1957 the neutralist prime minister of Laos, Prince Souvanna Phouma, and his half brother Prince Souphanouvong, the Pathet Lao leader, reached an agreement by which the Pathet Lao was brought into a coalition government approved by the National Assembly. This political emergence of the Pathet Lao was, however, opposed by a newly formed right-wing group that ousted Souvanna Phouma's government and formed a new conservative government in August 1958. Subsequently, the Pathet Lao resumed guerrilla warfare. War and Cease-Fire The political situation remained unstable. In the renewed fighting the Pathet Lao was supported by the USSR, while the United States supplied the right-wing forces. In 1960 the commander of a paratroop battalion, Captain Kong Le, staged a rebellion against the right-wing government and took control of Vientiane, the Laotian administrative capital. In the resulting struggle between rival factions, Prince Souvanna Phouma was brought back to power. His attempt to include leftists in a coalition government provoked a right-wing military rebellion that had support from the United States. Souvanna was forced to flee the country, and Prince Boun Oum, a fervent anti-Communist, became premier. By mid-1961 the Pathet Lao, now joined by Kong Le's neutralist forces, had gained control of about half the country. Meanwhile, the United States, the USSR, and other nations became concerned about the international dangers of the Laotian civil war, and they managed to arrange for a cease-fire in May 1961. A 14-nation conference on Laos convened in Geneva and reached an agreement on July 23, providing for the neutrality of the country and the withdrawal of all foreign troops. After prolonged negotiations the leaders of the three main Laotian factions (Pathet Lao, neutralist, and pro-Western) agreed to form a provisional government of national union led by Prince Souvanna Phouma. This was installed in 1962. Breakdown of Government During the next two years right-wing leaders made several attempts to seize power. A split developed in the neutralist camp, and a number of Souvanna Phouma's left-wing supporters switched their allegiance to the Pathet Lao. In 1964 the remaining neutralists merged with the rightists, and the military forces of the two groups were also consolidated. Prince Souphanouvong, the Pathet Lao leader, claimed that this action violated the Geneva accord and ceased to recognize Souvanna Phouma as the legitimate head of government. By 1965 open fighting had resumed between the Pathet Lao and government forces. On the government side, mercenaries from Thailand and a force of Hmong tribesmen, financed and trained by the United States, were involved in the fighting. In the mid-1960s Laos began to be drawn into the Vietnam War. North Vietnamese troops used jungle trails in eastern and southern Laos as routes to supply their forces fighting in South Vietnam, and U.S. warplanes carried out increasingly heavy bombing attacks on the so-called Ho Chi Minh Trail. In 1971 South Vietnamese forces invaded Laos to cut the Communist supply route, but were beaten back. Pathet Lao Victory By the end of 1971 the Communists were in a strong military position and forced Souvanna Phouma to hold talks, which led to a cease-fire in 1973. In April 1974 a new coalition government was set up. Unlike the 1962 government, this one had no center but only adherents of the Pathet Lao and supporters of Souvanna. It was soon dominated by the Pathet Lao. Communist victories in Cambodia and Vietnam in April 1975 further encouraged the Pathet Lao and ended any hope of resistance on Souvanna's part. In December of that year the Laotian monarchy was abolished, and the Lao People's Democratic Republic was proclaimed. Souphanouvong became president, serving until 1986; Phoumi Vongvichit assumed the largely ceremonial position as interim president. Real power was wielded by Kaysone Phomvihan, the Communist leader, who served as prime minister.  In 1981, beset by economic difficulties, the government launched its first five-year plan. Discontent under Communist rule, however, was widespread. By 1982, some 300,000 Laotians were estimated to have fled the country. Approximately 50,000 Vietnamese troops, who remained in Laos to bolster the regime, were withdrawn by 1990. In addition, Vietnamese influence was gradually reduced. After a constitution expanding presidential powers became law in 1991, Kaysone assumed the office, and General Khamtai Siphandon became prime minister. Domestically, the government began to move away from state economic planning toward an open-market economy. When Kaysone died in November 1992, he was succeeded by two close associates: Nouhak Phoumsavane became president, and Khamtai became leader of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party, while retaining the office of prime minister.