In the interplay between quantitative observation and theoretical
construction that characterizes the development of modern science, we have seen
that Brahe was the master of the first but was deficient in the second. The next great
development in the history of astronomy was the theoretical intuition of
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), a German who went to Prague to become Brahe's
assistant.
Brahe's Data and Kepler
Kepler and Brahe did not get
along well. Brahe apparently mistrusted Kepler, fearing that his bright young
assistant might eclipse him as the premiere astonomer of his day. He therefore
let Kepler see only part of his voluminous data.
He set Kepler the task of understanding the orbit of the planet Mars, which was particularly troublesome. It is believed that part of the motivation for giving the Mars problem to Kepler was that it was difficult, and Brahe hoped it would occupy Kepler while Brahe worked on his theory of the Solar System. In a supreme irony, it was precisely the Martian data that allowed Kepler to formulate the correct laws of planetary motion, thus eventually achieving a place in the development of astronomy far surpassing that of Brahe.
Kepler and the Elliptical Orbits
Unlike Brahe, Kepler believed firmly in the Copernican system. In retrospect, the reason that the orbit of Mars was particularly difficult was that Copernicus had correctly placed the Sun at the center of the Solar System, but had erred in assuming the orbits of the planets to be circles. Thus, in the Copernican theory epicycles were still required to explain the details of planetary motion.
It fell to
Kepler to provide the final piece of the puzzle: after a long struggle, in which
he tried mightily to avoid his eventual conclusion, Kepler was forced finally to
the realization that the orbits of the planets were not the circles demanded by
Aristotle and assumed implicitly by Copernicus, but were instead the "flattened
circles" that geometers call ellipses
(See adjacent figure; the planetary orbits are only slightly elliptical and are
not as flattened as in this example.)
The irony noted above lies in the realization that the difficulties with the Martian orbit derive precisely from the fact that the orbit of Mars was the most elliptical of the planets for which Brahe had extensive data. Thus Brahe had unwittingly given Kepler the very part of his data that would allow Kepler to eventually formulate the correct theory of the Solar System and thereby to banish Brahe's own theory!
Some Properties of Ellipses
Since the orbits of the planets are ellipses, let us review a few basic properties of ellipses.
1. For an ellipse there are two points called foci
(singular: focus) such that the sum of the distances to the foci from any point
on the ellipse is a constant. In terms of the diagram shown to the left, with
"x" marking the location of the foci, we have the equation
a + b = constant
that defines the ellipse in terms of the distances a and b.2. The amount of "flattening" of the ellipse is termed the eccentricity. Thus, in the following figure the ellipses become more eccentric from left to right. A circle may be viewed as a special case of an ellipse with zero eccentricity, while as the ellipse becomes more flattened the eccentricity approaches one. Thus, all ellipses have eccentricities lying between zero and one.
3. The long axis of the ellipse is called the major
axis, while the short axis is called the minor axis (adjacent
figure). Half of the major axis is termed a semimajor axis. The length
of a semimajor axis is often termed the size of the ellipse. It can be shown
that the average separation of a planet from the Sun as it goes around its
elliptical orbit is equal to the length of the semimajor axis. Thus, by the
"radius" of a planet's orbit one usually means the length of the semimajor axis.
For a more detailed investigation of the properties of ellipses.
The Laws of Planetary Motion
Kepler obtained Brahe's data after his death despite the attempts by Brahe's family to keep the data from him in the hope of monetary gain. There is some evidence that Kepler obtained the data by less than legal means; it is fortunate for the development of modern astronomy that he was successful. Utilizing the voluminous and precise data of Brahe, Kepler was eventually able to build on the realization that the orbits of the planets were ellipses to formulate his Three Laws of Planetary Motion.Kepler's First Law:
| I. The orbits of the planets are ellipses, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. |
 |
Kepler's First Law is illustrated in the image shown above. The Sun is not at
the center of the ellipse, but is instead at one focus (generally there is
nothing at the other focus of the ellipse). The planet then follows the ellipse
in its orbit, which means that the Earth-Sun distance is constantly changing as
the planet goes around its orbit. For purpose of illustration we have shown the
orbit as rather eccentric; remember that the actual orbits are much less
eccentric than this.
Kepler's Second Law:
| II. The line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times as the planet travels around the ellipse. |
 |
Kepler's second law is illustrated in the preceding figure. The line joining
the Sun and planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times, so the planet moves
faster when it is nearer the Sun. Thus, a planet executes elliptical motion with
constantly changing angular speed as it moves about its orbit. The point of
nearest approach of the planet to the Sun is termed perihelion; the
point of greatest separation is termed aphelion. Hence, by Kepler's
second law, the planet moves fastest when it is near perihelion and slowest when
it is near aphelion.
Kepler's Third Law:
| III. The ratio of the squares of the revolutionary periods for two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their semimajor axes: |
 |
In this equation P represents the period of revolution for a planet and R represents the length of its semimajor axis. The subscripts "1" and "2" distinguish quantities for planet 1 and 2 respectively. The periods for the two planets are assumed to be in the same time units and the lengths of the semimajor axes for the two planets are assumed to be in the same distance units.
Kepler's Third Law implies that the period for a planet to orbit the Sun increases rapidly with the radius of its orbit. Thus, we find that Mercury, the innermost planet, takes only 88 days to orbit the Sun but the outermost planet (Pluto) requires 248 years to do the same.
Calculations Using Kepler's Third Law
A convenient unit of measurement for periods is in Earth years, and a convenient unit of measurement for distances is the average separation of the Earth from the Sun, which is termed an astronomical unit and is abbreviated as AU. If these units are used in Kepler's 3rd Law, the denominators in the preceding equation are numerically equal to unity and it may be written in the simple form
or for the length of the semimajor axis, given the period
of the planet,
Here is a Kepler's Laws Calculator that allows you to make simple calculations for periods, separations, and masses for Keplers' laws as modified by Newton (see subsequent section) to include the effect of the center of mass. (Caution: this applet is written under Java 1.1, which is only supported by the most recent browsers. It should work on Windows systems under Netscape 4.06 or the most recent version of Internet Explorer 4.0, but may not yet work on Mac or Unix systems or earlier Windows browsers.)
Information supplied by: http://csep10.phys.utk.edu